BUSINESS RESEARCH

METHODS

MISGANAW SOLOMON
NOVEMBER 2022
ST. MARY’S UNIVERSITY
Warm welcome
to BRM course!
 EXPECTATIONS

?
List your three expectations.
PURPOSE OF THE COURSE
 To acquaint you with the various research
methods used in social sciences in general
and business fields in particular
 To explain business research methodology
 To help you apply appropriate research
methods and techniques when you write
your Thesis
 To enable you to write a readable,
comprehensible, well-organized original
Thesis at the end of your Master’s study
 To contribute to your professional
competencies
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Demonstrate sound understanding about
research methods and research report
writing skills
 Choose appropriate research designs and
methods for your projects
 Use appropriate research methods in your
work
 Analyze and report results
 Critically evaluate the work of other
researchers
 Apply the ethical considerations
 MODE OF DELIVERY
 Experiential
 Lectures
 Pair, group and whole class
discussions
 Case studies
 Reflections on reading and audio-
video materials
 Critical evaluation of others’ research
works
 Oral and written presentations
 Hands-on
 Technology
CONTENTS TO BE COVERED
 Introduction to Business Research
 Scientific Thinking
 The Research Process
 The Research Proposal
 Research Methods
 Measurement
 Data Collection
 Data Analysis and Presentation
 Research Report Writing
 ASSESSMENT

 Group and individual tasks and

assignments, presentations …..60%
 Examination ….. 40%
 POINTS TO CONSIDER
 Single focus
 Logical organization
 Strong support
 Consistency
 Clear and complete explanations
 Effective use of research
 Writing style adopted by the
university (APA)
Let’s get started.
 WHAT IS RESEARCH?

Why do we do research?

What characterizes good

research?
 RESEARCH – DEFINITIONS
 a scientific and systematic search for knowledge on a
specific topic
 pursuit of truth with the help of observation or experiment
 Systematic approach for generalization or formulation of
a theory (Kothari, 2004)
 “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through
search for new facts” (Advanced Learner’s Dictionary)
 “systematized effort to gain new knowledge” (Redman
and Mory in Kothari (2004)).
 “defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising
and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching
conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions
to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis”
(Woody in Kothari, 2004).
WHY DO WE DO RESEARCH?
 Gain familiarity with a phenomenon or achieve new
insights into it (Exploratory or Formulative research)
 Portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group (Descriptive
research)
 Determine the frequency with which something
occurs or with which it is associated with something
else (Diagnostic research)
 Test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between
variables (Hypothesis-testing research)
 provide knowledge regarding an organization, the
market, the economy, or another area of uncertainty
 help decision makers make informed decisions
 WHAT MAKES GOOD RESEARCH?
 Systematic, logical, empirical, replicable,
rigorous, valid, verifiable, critical
 F – feasible
I – interesting
N – novel
E – ethical
R – relevant (Cummings et al. 2013) 
 Representative and generalisable
 Defines and articulates a research question
 Identifies possible sources of information in
different types and formats
 Determines the scope of the project
 Plans the research project
 CONT’D …
 Reevaluates the research questions based on the nature and
extent of information available and the parameters of the
research project
 Selects the most appropriate investigative methods and
tools
 Synthesizes, analyzes and integrates information sources
and prior knowledge
 Uses information effectively for a specific purpose
 Writes and organizes useful notes and keeps track of
sources
 Understands such issues as plagiarism, research ethics
 Cite properly and give credit for sources of ideas
 Acknowledges its limitations and provides suggestions for
future research
 TASK ONE
Why is business research done?
Give a list of possible reasons that
make business research important.
 SCIENTIFIC REASONING

 Deduction
 Induction
 Combination of
deduction and
induction
 CONT’D …
Deductive – sometimes known as “top-down”
starts with a theory narrows that down into more
specific hypotheses 
four stages (Streefkerk 2022) :

Example
“Low cost airlines always have delays.
If passengers fly with a low cost airline, then they will
always experience delays.
Collect flight data of low-cost airlines.
5 out of 100 flights of low-cost airlines are not
delayed. = reject hypothesis.” (Streefkerk 2022. p.1)
 CONT’D …
Inductive - sometimes called “bottom up”
starts with specific observations, detects patterns & regularities,
formulates tentative hypotheses and arrives at general
conclusions/theories
used when:
• there is little to no existing literature on a topic
• no theory exists to test
three stages

Example (Streefkerk 2022, p.1)

“A low-cost airline flight is delayed.
Another 20 flights from low-cost airlines are delayed.
Low cost airlines always have delays.”
Read Sekaran and Bougie (2016, pp. 26 - 27).
 EXAMPLE

Source: research method vs methodology, image - bing images

 CONT’D …
Limitations of an inductive approach
Impossible to prove conclusions drawn on the
basis of an inductive method
Example
“You observe 1000 flights from low-cost airlines. All
of them experience a delay, which is in line with your
theory. However, you can never prove that flight
1001 will also be delayed” (Streefkerk, 2022, p. 1).
Limitations of a deductive approach
Conclusions of deductive method can only be
true if all the premises are true.
 CONT’D …
Summary
Inductive reasoning aims at developing
a theory while deductive reasoning aims
at testing an existing theory.
Inductive reasoning is more open-
ended and exploratory, especially at the
beginning whereas deductive reasoning
is narrower and is concerned with
testing or confirming hypotheses.
Most social research involves both
inductive and deductive reasoning.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
By purpose: Fundamental vs. applied
Fundamental (also known as
Theoretical/Basic/Pure Research)
Focuses on generalizations and with
the formulation of a theory
Done to gather knowledge for
knowledge’s sake
Applied
• Intends to find a solution for a problem
 Cont’d …
By scope: Exploratory, Explanatory,
Descriptive, Correlational
Exploratory
preliminary investigation of a subject
that is not yet well understood or
sufficiently researched
establish a frame of reference and a
hypothesis from which an in-depth
study can be developed that will enable
conclusive results to be generated
 Cont’d …
Explanatory Research
Establishes cause-and-effect
relationships that allow generalisations
to be extended to similar realities
Descriptive
Intends to define the characteristics of
a particular phenomenon without
necessarily investigating the causes
that produce it
 Cont’d …
Correlational Research
Is intended to identify the relationship
between two or more variables
Helps to determine whether a variable
changes, how much the other elements
of the observed system change
Predictive Research
Is intended to forecast outcomes,
consequences, costs, or effects.
 Cont’d …
By time – Longitudinal and Cross-sectional
Research
Longitudinal Research
 involves data collection at multiple points in time
 trend study – looks at population characteristics
over time, Eg. organizational absenteeism rates
during the course of a year
 cohort study – traces a sub-population over
time, Eg. absenteeism rates for the sales
department
 panel study – traces the same sample over time,
Eg. graduate career tracks over the period 1990
– 2000 for the same starting cohort.
 Cont’d …
Cross-sectional Research (One-shot
research)
Is a study in which data is gathered
once, during a period of days, weeks
or months.
Many cross-sectional studies are
exploratory or descriptive. They are
designed to look at how things are
now, without any sense of whether
there is a history or trend at work.
 Cont’d …
By type of data used: Quantitative and
Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research
delves into a phenomena through
quantitative data collection and using
mathematical statistical and computer-
aided tolls to measure them.
allows generalised conclusions to be
projected over time.
 TASK TWO
Match the terms given under Column A with the descriptions
given under Column B.
Column A Column B
Descriptive empirical research concerned with forecasting
research future events/behavior based on patterns within a
set of variables
Correlational investigates the possibilities of undertaking a
research particular research study (feasibility study/pilot
study) or explores an area where little is known
Explanatory clarifies why and how there is a relationship
between two or more aspects of a situation or
research phenomenon
describes systematically a situation, problem,
Exploratory
phenomenon, service or programme, or provides
research information about, say, living condition of a
community, or describes attitudes towards an
Predictive issue
research attempts to discover or establish the existence of
a relationship/interdependence between two or
more aspects of a situation
UNDERSTANDING KEY TERMS: THEORY,
CONCEPTS, CONSTRUCTS, VARIABLES,
PROPOSITIONS, AND HYPOTHESIS(SES)
Theory
a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions
and propositions used to explain/predict phenomena.
any concept, instrument, model, or framework that helps to:
 think about or solve a problem
 describe or explain a phenomenon
 better understand a topic or the reality and the logic
behind things we observe
a formal, logical explanation of some events that include
predictions of how things relate to one another
 Example
 People work longer hours because they expect an
increase in pay.
 CONT’D …
Concepts
generalized idea or abstract reality about a
class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or
processes
Examples
Leadership, productivity, morale
Assets, liabilities, depreciation
Constructs
broad concepts or topics for a study measured
with multiple variables
can be abstract and do not necessarily need to
be directly observable
Examples
Intelligence, life satisfaction
 CONT’D …
Variables
anything that varies or changes
empirical reflection of a concept
depict differences in value, magnitude or
strength, or in direction
can be discrete (counted items) (Eg. Male or
female) or continuous (measured
characteristics) (Eg. height)
four types
 dependent (also known as the criterion variable)
 independent variable (also known as the predictor variable)
 moderating variable
 mediating variable
 CONT’D …
Dependent variable
the main variable for investigation
primary interest to a researcher
A researcher’s goal is to understand and describe
the dependent variable or explain its variability
or predict it.
Analyzing the dependent variable leads to finding
answers or solutions to a problem.
possible to have more than one dependent variable
(In such cases, multivariate statistical analyses are
required.)
 CONT’D …
Independent variable
influences the dependent variable in a positive or negative
way.
When the independent variable is present, the dependent
variable is also present.
Increase in the independent variable results in an
increase or decrease in the dependent variable.
Conditions
The independent and the dependent variables should
covary: a change in the independent variable a
change in the dependent variable.
The independent variable should precede the dependent
variable. The cause must occur before the effect.
No other factor should be a possible cause of the change
in the dependent variable. The researcher should control
for the effects of other variables.
A logical explanation (a theory) is needed and it must
explain why the independent variable affects the
dependent variable.
 CONT’D …
Moderating variables
 has a strong contingent effect on the
independent–dependent variables’ relationship.
modify the original relationship between the
independent and the dependent variables -
(increase/decrease/reverse the relationship).
Read the examples on Sekaran & Bougie 2016,
(pp. 76 - 78) and explain to the class.
You may also watch the video
(38) Mediating vs Moderating Variables – YouTube to
understand the difference between moderating
and mediating variables.
 CONT’D …
Mediating/intervening variable
refers to intermediate stuffs that link the independent to
the dependent variables
causes a temporal quality or time dimension to the
mediating variable
helps to conceptualize and explain the influence of the
independent variable(s) on the dependent variable.

Read the examples on Sekaran & Bougie 2016, (pp. 79 -

80) and explain to the class.
You may also watch the video
(38) Mediating vs Moderating Variables – YouTube to understand
the difference between moderating and mediating
variables.
 CONT’D …
Extraneous variables
Any variable that relates to any of the
independent or dependent variable
Confound variables
Any variable that relates to both the
independent and dependent variable
All confound variables are extraneous
variables but all extraneous variables are
not confound variables.
 PROPOSITION AND HYPOTHESIS
Proposition
A statement explaining the logical linkage among certain
concepts “Leadership style is related to employee
turnover”.
At abstract level
Hypothesis
an unproven proposition that is empirically testable
predicts a relationship between variables
a tentative statement, which predicts what is expected
to be obtained through empirical data
empirical counterpart of a proposition
is either accepted or rejected
Examples
Workforce diversity has a positive effect on
organizational effectiveness. (directional)
There is a difference between the work ethic values
of American and Asian employees. (non-directional)
 CONT’D …
 typically used in experimental and quasi-
experimental designs and survey research
 Two forms: null (H0) and alternate (HA)
 Null hypothesis
 set up to be rejected in order to support an
alternate hypothesis
 presumed true until statistical evidence
indicates otherwise
 no (significant) relationship between two
variables or no (significant) difference between
two groups
 Alternate hypothesis
 a statement expressing a relationship between two
variables or indicating differences between groups
When the data are consistent with a hypothesis, the hypothesis is
supported.
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Generally speaking, the
research process can be
summarized as follows.
Identifying and defining the
research problem
Reviewing the literature
Formulating hypothesis(ses)
and/or research questions
Selecting research methods
Collecting data
Preparing results
Reporting findings
 WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROPOSAL?
A research proposal
A brief description of what, why, how of a study
Clarification of whatever it is that one proposes to study
A good research proposal
provides background information about the problem
explains the rationale
identifies the overall purpose/major objective of the
research
articulates the specific objectives which will help achieve
the major objective
provides brief literature review
outlines how one will carry out the research (methods)
provides a plan of action and budget
provides definitions of key terms or concepts (where
necessary)
should be clear, consistent, coherent, to the point
 STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
A research proposal should consist of:
Title of the research
Background of the problem
Statement of the problem
Objectives
Research questions
Scope of the study
Research Methods
Time frame
Budget
References
For more clarification and example, please refer to Sekaran and Bougie (2016)
IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM
Involves several stages
Identification of the broad problem
Preliminary research to get answers for
such questions as:
What is the problem?
Why does the problem exist?
Is the problem important?
What are the benefits of solving the
problem?
Definition of the research problem
SELECTING A TITLE FOR YOUR RESEARCH

 Your research title should:

 describe what the study is about in a
condensed manner
 be brief, attractive, clear and to the
point
 depending on the type of the study,
usually reflect:
The variables
The relationship between variables
The population to which the results may be
applied
INTRODUCTION/BACKGROUND
 Provides background/context for a research
undertaking to hook readers
 Describes relevant scholarship (previous
studies)
 Indicates current status of the area under
investigation
 Shows the gap
 Is a tool through which you can convince your
reader that your research is unique and has
an added value
 Concludes with a brief but formal statement of
the purpose of the research that summarizes
the material preceding it
 CONT’D …
 Check if the introduction addresses the
following questions:
What is the problem?
Why is it important to study this problem?
How does the study relate to previous work
in the area? If other aspects of this study
have been reported previously, how does
this report differ from, and build on the
earlier report?
What are the objectives of the study?
What are the theoretical and practical
implications of the study?
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
 Main idea of the paper
 Your opinion or point of view
 Evidence that supports the existence of
the problem
 Objectives of the Study
 Answer to the research question
 A clear description of the setting
 Moves from general to specific points
 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
 State specific means of answering the
research questions
 Have three general goals
description
prediction
explanation
 Discuss the specific points of focus
 Are written using action verbs
 Should be SMART
 Should enable you to answer the question
“What do you want your readers to know”?
 ACTION VERBS
Example
To identify To establish
To describe To determine
To estimate To develop
To compare To analyse
To examine To discuss
To collect To explain
To find out To explore
To assess
 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
 guide a research work
 give the work a clear focus and purpose
 should be:
 Focused on a single problem or issue
 Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
 Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical
constraints
 Specific enough to answer thoroughly
 Complex enough to develop the answer over the space
of a paper or thesis
 Relevant to your field of study and/or society more
broadly
CONT’D …
 TASK THREE
Identify a problem.
Narrow it down.
Select a title for your proposal.
Write
Background of the Problem.
Statement of the Problem.
Objectives of the Study.
Submission date: December 25,
2022
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
 Discusses what the
researcher thinks would be
the advantages of conducting
a study
 Explains who would benefit
from the study and how
DELIMITATION (SCOPE OF THE
STUDY)
 Boundaries of your thesis
 Can be controlled
 Are set so that a
researcher’s goals do not
become impossibly large to
complete
 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
 Are constraints
 List out possible problems a
researcher faced and the
impact these problems had on
the findings of the research
 Are beyond the control of the
researcher
ORGANIZATION OF THE PAPER

 Introduces the paper

 Shows the outline of the major
sections of the paper
 Indicates the sequence
 Should be brief
 REVIEWING LITERATURE
What is review of related literature?
What should be included in a review of
related literature?
What makes a good review of related
literature?
Why do we need to do review of related
literature?
How do we do it?
 WHAT IS REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE?
 critical analysis, synthesis and evaluation of
materials that have already been published
 an important part of research which enables
to:
obtain an overview of current knowledge about
the problem under investigation;
identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps;
avoid needlessly repeating work that has been
done before;
build on existing work; and
contribute something new.
 WHAT SHOULD BE INCLUDED
IN LITERATURE REVIEW?

 established findings
 conflicting evidence
 gaps
 SOURCES
Books (hard and/or soft copies)
Journals (Academic journals are most
useful of all)
Reports
Conference proceedings, working
papers
Theses and dissertations
Avoid using:
Textbooks, Wikipedia and sources whose
scholarly features are questionable
 A GOOD RELATED
LITERATURE REVIEW
 clearly delimits the subject matter to be
reviewed
 covers all important relevant literature
 is up-to-date
 provides an insightful analysis of the ideas
and conclusions in the literature
 identifies similarities and differences,
strengths and weaknesses, and
controversies in the literature
 identifies gaps in the literature for future
research
 CONT’D…
 starts with a good outline and
consists of:
An introduction that establishes the
importance of the topic, the scope of the
review, and the organization of the
paper;
The major section headers and sub-
sections that follow the same
organization established in the
introduction;
Summary of findings, implications of
findings, and discussion.
 WHY DO WE NEED TO DO REVIEW OF
RELATED LITERATURE?
 define and clarify the problem;
 summarize previous investigations;
 identify relations, contradictions, gaps, and
inconsistencies in the literature;
 properly situate a study within the bigger
scheme of things of what is being
investigated;
 demonstrate the innovation and originality;
 connects the literature to the study area and
topic
 helps development of conceptual framework
 HOW SHOULD YOU DO IT?
 familiarize yourself with publications that deal with
the problem you work on
 identify the texts you wish to include in your
review
 decide on the most appropriate way to classify
materials you will use
 identify the key issues
 critically analyze what you have read
 identify important issues that are still unresolved
 write a draft of the review
 read and think about what you have written and
then rewrite
 AVOID PLAGIARISM
Quoting
Summarizing
Paraphrasing
Citing
 QUOTING
Using others’ material as they are written
in the source document to:
• Affirm your statement
• Capture the precise language of an expert
who made the point particularly well
• discuss the source’s exact choice of words
to better understand complex subjects or
specialized language
• draw attention to an important point
Never leave a quotation without saying
something.
 SUMMARIZING
 Giving a condensed version of
somebody’s ideas
 Discussing the most important points
 Use you use your own words
 PARAPHRASING
 is changing a text so that it is expressed
in a different way from the source
without changing the original meaning.
 Effective paraphrasing is vital in
academic writing to avoid the risk of
plagiarism.
 How?
Change vocabulary
Change word order
Change structure of the sentence
 CITING
Why do we cite others’ work?
credit others for their contributions
avoid plagiarism – of others as well
as self
How do we do it?
In the body (in-text) and in the
reference section (outside the text)
Three places in a sentence –
beginning, middle, at the end
 CONT’D…
Different scenarios
Single author
Two or three authors
Four and more authors
Works with no identified author or
with an anonymous author
Works without date
Second hand references
REPORTING VERBS
 TASK FOUR
Paraphrase the following sentence.
Acknowledge the source properly.
Author: Barbar Francis
Title of the book: Are you misusing other people’s work?
What plagiarism is and how to avoid it
Published: 2015
“If you want to avoid plagiarism, one of
the best things you can do is to learn how
to use research material - those ideas you
look up and refer to when you are writing
a paper” (p. 64).
 CONT’D …
Summarize the following text in one
sentence. Acknowledge the source properly.
Author: Barbar Francis
Title of the book: Are you misusing other people’s work? What
plagiarism is and how to avoid it
Published: 2015
Some students feel they are actually meeting
the requirement of the assignment if their paper
consists of nothing but back-to-back quotes.
Inserting one quotation after another, even with
proper citation, brings no new ideas to the
subject. A paper filled mostly with quotes is
boring and unoriginal. (p. 67).
 ASSIGNMENT (TO BE MARKED)
Write a three-page literature review
for the research topic you have
identified.
 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
 is a logically structured representation (written or visual) of
the concepts, variables and relationships intending to
identify what will be explored, examined, measured or
described
 defines the variables and relationships that should be
examined
 is usually shown in a diagram/picture and connects
variables to the theories
 illustrates what you expect to find through your research
 is the researcher’s “map” in pursuing the investigation
 is important to focus the data collection
 is developed based on a literature review of existing
studies and theories about the topic
 SUMMARY
Review of related literature:
is an essential part of the research process
gives an overview of theoretical background on a research topic
provides evidence of the existence of the problem
shows that there is lack of studies in the area being studied
justifies that it is important to fill the gap
discusses what the different theoretical and empirical literature
argues, and links it to the research under investigation
A researcher should:
 focus on recent studies from high-prestige sources
 focus on studies that are most relevant to the problem
 use different sources – PubMed, libgen, pdfdrive.com, sci-hub
two types
 conceptual literature concerning the concepts and theories,
and
 empirical literature consisting of studies made earlier which are
similar to the one proposed
 EXERCISE
Look at the outline you are given
and analyze the classification of the
review of related literature.
 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Methodology
 A science and philosophy, general laws
and principles, and systematic procedures
used to guide the research and describe,
explain and predict phenomena
 logical explanation behind the steps taken in
research
 Intends to use the correct procedures/suitable
methods to find out solutions
 classified into qualitative, quantitative, and
mixed-methods
 CONT’D …
Methods
specific activities designed to generate
data
various procedures, schemes, statistical
approaches, etc used in research
explanations based on collected facts,
measurements and observations
help to collect samples, data and find a
solution to a problem
aim at finding solutions to research
problems
 RESEARCH APPROACHES
Quantitative
generation of data in quantitative forms based on the
measurement of quantity or amount
sometimes known as structured approach
survey, experiment, observation, existing data,
context analysis
provides broad understanding of issues under
investigation
can be further sub-classified into inferential,
experimental and simulation
Inferential – helps to infer characteristics or
relationships
Experimental – some variables are manipulated to
observe their effect on other variables
Simulation – an artificial environment is created to
generate relevant information and data
 CONT’D …
Qualitative
subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and
behaviour
generates results in non-quantitative form involving
quality or kind
Sometimes known as unstructured approach
Interview, focus group discussion, case study,
literature review
 RESEARCH DESIGN
 the conceptual structure, blueprint for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data
 what, where, when, how much, by what means
 should enable to answer questions such as:
 What is the study about?
 Why is the study being carried out?
 Where will the study be carried out?
 What type of data is required?
 Where can the required data be found?
 What periods of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
 What techniques of data collection will be used?
 How will the data be analysed?
 In what style will the report be prepared?
 CONT’D …
Data collection
Type
Source
Organization
Presentation
Analysis
Interpretation
Reporting
PURPOSES OF RESEARCH METHODS
 Why do we need research methods?
 To secure data that are:
Valid – founded, logical, rigorous, and impartial
Accurate – free of errors
Reliable – other people who investigate in the
same way can produce similar results
Timely – current and collected within an
appropriate time frame
Complete – includes all data one needs to
support his/her decisions
 To organize, present and analyze findings
 To meet research objectives
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
 Descriptive
 Exploratory
 Explanatory
 Predictive
 Causal
 Correlational
 DESCRIPTIVE
describes characteristics of objects,
people, groups, organizations, or
environments
“paints a picture” of a given situation
by addressing who, what, when, where,
and how questions
Eg. Ethiopian Central Statistics Agency
reports
does not provide direct evidence of
causality
 CONT’D …
Descriptive vs. Analytical
Descriptive research
describes the state of affairs as it exists at present
does not explain why behaviour is the way it is
is very useful for setting out baselines or ‘templates’ of
how we think the world is
uses survey methods
Ex post facto research
reports what has happened or what is happening
Analytical research
uses facts or information and analyzes them to make
a critical evaluation
 EXPLORATORY
is conducted to have a better
understanding of the existing problem
investigates a problem which is not
clearly defined
builds the foundation for descriptive
research
answers the questions what and how
does not provide conclusive results
Results of exploratory research usually
need further testing and evaluation before
they can be made actionable.
 EXPLANATORY RESEARCH
Is deeper
Answers the question why
Intends to:
explain relations or events
advance knowledge about the structure,
process and nature of events
link factors and elements of issues into
general statements
build, test or revise a theory
Applies statistical methods to test causal
hypotheses
 CAUSAL RESEARCH
 establishes a cause-and-effect relationship
between two or more variables or sequence of
events
 sometimes referred to as explanatory research
 very powerful, conclusive research
 Establishes/measures/examines:
Temporal sequence – deals with the time order of events
Concomitant variation – occurs when two events “covary” or
“correlate,” meaning they vary systematically.
Nonspurious association – means any covariation between a
cause and an effect is true, rather than due to some other
variable. A spurious association is one that is not true.
 CONT’D …
Degrees of causality – Absolute,
Conditional, Contributory
Experiments
hold the greatest potential for
establishing cause-and-effect
relationships
An experimental variable represents the
proposed cause and is controlled by the
researcher by manipulating it.
 PREDICTIVE
 takes research one step further
 empirical research concerned with
forecasting future events or behavior
 based on patterns within a set of
variables
 applies statistical methods and/or
data mining techniques, without
preconceived theoretical constructs,
to predict future outcomes 
 CONT’D …
Conceptual vs Empirical
Conceptual
related to some abstract idea(s) or theory
generally used by philosophers and thinkers
to develop new concepts or to reinterpret
existing ones
Empirical (also known as experimental)
based on experience or observation
data-based to make conclusions
helps proof whether certain variables affect
other variables
 CONT’D …
Research design based on time and
environment
Time
One-time/Cross-sectional
to a single time-period
Longitudinal
over several time-periods
Environment
Field-setting vs laboratory or
simulation
Clinical or diagnostic research
 HOW DO WE DETERMINE THE
RESEARCH METHODS?
Nature of the research
Research questions
Purpose and objectives of the
research
Data type
Data source
Nature, purpose and functions of
each method
 SAMPLING DESIGN
Basic concepts
Population
 the entire group of people, events, or things for
investigation and for which inferences will be made
Element
 a single member of the population
Census
 the entire population
Sample
 a subgroup or subset of the population used to enable
to draw conclusions that are generalizable to the
population
Subject
 a single member of the sample
 CONT’D …
 Parameters
 Numerical summary of a population
 The characteristics of the population
 μ (the population mean), σ (the population standard
deviation), and σ 2 (the population variance)
 the sample statistics – X (the sample mean), S (the
standard deviation), and S 2 (the variation in the sample)
 Sampling
 the act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable
sample for the purpose of determining parameters or
characteristics of the whole population
 the process of selecting a sufficient number of the right
elements from the population, so that a study of the sample
and an understanding of its properties or characteristics
make it possible to generalize such characteristics to the
population elements
 WHY IS SAMPLING IMPORTANT?
 Discuss the need for sampling in a
study.
 List down the major advantages of
sampling.
 What possible disadvantages do
you anticipate?
 REASONS FOR SAMPLING
Save
Time
Cost
Energy
Get richer data
 THE SAMPLING PROCESS
Define the population
Determine the sample frame
Determine the sampling technique
Determine the appropriate sample size
Execute the sampling process
 DEFINING THE TARGET POPULATION
the first step for sampling
must be defined in terms of
elements
geographical boundaries, and
time
DETERMINING THE SAMPLE FRAME
Sample frame
 a list or a set of procedures that could
generate a list
 a (physical) representation of all elements in
a population from which the sample is drawn
 provides a listing of each element in the
population
 Example – HR database, payroll of an
organization
 Two types of errors
Coverage Error
 people excluded from sample frame
 Nonresponse Error
 People who do not respond to survey
 DETERMINING THE SAMPLING
TECHNIQUE
 Two major types of sampling techniques
 probability and non-probability
 Each technique has different sampling
strategies.
 selected based on the extent of
generalizability desired, the demands of time
and other resources, and the purpose of the
study
PROBABILITY VS. NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Each element in the population has
some known, non-zero chance or
probability of being selected as a
sample subject.
used when the representativeness of
the sample is of importance in the
interests of wider generalizability
applied based on unrestricted/simple
random, systematic, stratified, cluster,
or area sampling
Mainly used in quantitative approach
 CONT’D …
Unrestricted or simple random sampling
every element in the population has the
same and equal chance of being selected as
a subject.
the probability of any one of them being
chosen is 1 in the number of the population
the least bias and the most generalizability
may be cumbersome and expensive
Because it is not possible to have an
entirely updated listing of the population, other
probability sampling designs are often chosen.
 CONT’D …
Restricted or complex probability sampling
an alternative to the simple random sampling
design
a viable and sometimes more efficient alternative
to the unrestricted design
There are several complex probability sampling
(restricted probability) designs.
 systematic sampling, stratified random
sampling, cluster sampling, area sampling,
and double sampling
Efficiency is improved when some of the complex
probability sampling procedures are used than the
simple random sampling design.
 CONT’D …
Systematic sampling
involves drawing every nth element in the population
starting with a randomly chosen element between 1
and n.
 The nth element or skip interval is determined to
find out he skip pattern applied to the sampling
frame.
 To draw a systematic sample:
 Identify, list, and number the elements in the
population
 Identify the skip interval (n) n=
 Identify the random start
 Draw a sample by choosing every nth entry
 CONT’D …
Cluster sampling
single- and multi-stage sampling
Single-stage Sampling
refers to grouping the population and
then selecting the groups or the clusters
rather than individual elements
The sample size must be larger than
the simple random sample.
is more heterogeneous within groups
and more homogenous among groups
 CONT’D …
Cluster sampling
Multi-stage sampling
is a further development of the idea of cluster
sampling
is meant for big inquiries extending to a
considerably large geographical area like an entire
country
the first stage may be to select large primary
sampling units such as states, then districts, then
towns and finally certain families within towns
If the technique of random-sampling is applied at
all stages, the sampling procedure is described as
multi-stage random sampling
 CONT’D …
Area sampling
is similar to cluster sampling
is considered when the total geographical area is big
first the total area is grouped into a number of smaller
non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical
clusters
then a number of these smaller areas are randomly
selected, and all units in these small areas are included in
the sample
is specially helpful in the absence of a list of the
population
makes field interviewing more efficient because it allows
the researcher to do many interviews at each location
 CONT’D …
Stratified random sampling
is used when the population from which a sample is to be
drawn is not homogeneous
involves a process of stratification or segregation
The population is first divided into mutually exclusive groups
that are relevant, appropriate, and meaningful .
This keeps homogeneity within each group and
heterogeneity across groups.
Once the population is stratified in such meaningful ways:
 either a simple random sampling or a systematic
sampling is used to draw a sample of members from
each stratum
The subjects drawn from each stratum can be either
proportionate or disproportionate to the number of elements in
the stratum.
 CONT’D …
Double sampling
is important when further information is
needed from a subset of the group from
which some information has already been
collected for the same study
is used to collect some preliminary
information and later a subsample of this
primary sample is used to examine the
matter in greater detail
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Elements do not have a known or
predetermined chance of being selected as
subjects.
used when time or other factors, rather
than generalizability become critical
involves purposive or deliberate selection
of particular units of the population for
constituting a sample which represents the
population
used in both qualitative and quantitative
approaches
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
is not possible to confidently make
generalizations
based on convenience, judgment and
quota sampling techniques.
 CONT’D …
Convenience sampling
the collection of information from members
of the population who are conveniently
available
is most often used during the exploratory
phase of a research project and is perhaps
the best way of getting some basic
information quickly and efficiently.
 CONT’D …
Purposive sampling
considers specific target groups instead of
readily or conveniently available subjects
confined to specific types of people who
can provide the desired information either
because they are:
the only ones who have it, or
conform to some criteria set by the
researcher
two major types of purposive sampling
judgment and quota sampling
 CONT’D …
Judgment sampling
involves the choice of subjects who are
most advantageously placed or in the best
position to provide the information required
Quota sampling
used in stratified sampling to minimize the
cost of taking random samples from individual
strata
The actual selection of items for sample is
left to the researcher’s judgment.
 CONT’D …
 The size of the quota for each stratum is generally
proportionate to the size of that stratum in the
population.
 is a necessity when a subset of the population is
underrepresented. For example, minority groups
 can be considered a form of proportionate
stratified sampling
 predetermined proportion of people is taken as
sample from different groups using
convenience sampling technique.
 Can be:
 controlled – Restrictions apply to choose
samples.
 uncontrolled - Researcher is free to choose
sample.
 CONT’D …
Snowball Sampling
identifying someone who meets the criteria
for inclusion in a study
Then this subject recommends others who
they may know who also meet the criteria.
is especially useful when to reach
populations that are inaccessible or hard to
find
 CONFIDENCE LEVEL
 is the probability that estimations are correct
 shows the level of results’ accuracy and
error. In other words, tells how confident a
researcher can be in the results of his/her
study.
 Although there are options of percentage
such as 90%, 95%, 99%, 95% is the
standard confidence level used in most
research.
 There is tolerable level of error in all surveys
- usually 5% margin of error.
 DETERMINING APPROPRIATE
SAMPLE SIZE
Determining sample size should consider:
The purpose of the study
The extent of precision desired (the
confidence interval)
The acceptable risk in predicting that level
of precision (confidence level)
The amount of variability in the population
The cost and time constraints
In some cases, the size of the population
itself.
 TASK FIVE
Read the following cases carefully and identify which
sampling designs they refer to.
Case 1

A researcher wants to do a national survey of the

average monthly bank deposits. In order to
consider a representative sample, she groups the
population into urban, semi-urban, and rural. Next,
she selects particular areas in each of these
locations. She then chooses banks within each
area.
Case 2

A structured interview might indicate that a

subgroup of the respondents has more insight into
the problems of the organization. These
respondents might be interviewed again and asked
additional questions.
 SUMMARY
Sampling design becomes effective
if it enables a researcher to answer
the following basic questions.
1.What is the target population?
2.What are the parameters of interest?
3.What is the sampling frame?
4.What is the appropriate sampling
method?
5.What size sample is needed?
 EXERCISE
Determine the research and
sampling design for your study.
Discuss the appropriate research methods
you will use in your study (approach, design,
methods, data source, data type, sampling
technique, level of measurement, etc) to be
used.
MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES
Measurement
is the assignment of numbers/other symbols
to characteristics of objects (persons, strategic
business units, companies, countries, etc)
according to a pre-specified set of rules
reveals and illustrates the relationship
between quantitatively derived variables
is important to understand the kind of
variables to determine how to analyze the data
is used to measure variables to answer
research questions of quantitative nature
 CONT’D …
Level of measurement
depends on the nature of the variable and
the research purpose
Categorical – Socioeconomic status
(working class, middle class, upper
class)
Continuous – Socioeconomic status
(25,000, 23,034, etc)
 CONT’D …
Measurement of variables
uses four types of scales (tools used to
distinguish individuals)
A scale may only broadly categorize
individuals on certain variables, or
differentiate individuals with varying degrees
of sophistication.
The four basic types of scales are
nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
 CONT’D …
Nominal
categorizes behavior into mutually exclusive and
collectively exhaustive groups
Categorical/dichotomous, discrete categories
is the least powerful tool from the four scales
is valuable in exploratory work where the objective is to
identify relationships rather than secure precise
measurements
can also be used for surveys and any other research
which intends to classify data by subgroups of the population
Mode is the only central tendency which makes sense in
nominal scale.
 CONT’D …
Ordinal
implies “greater than” or “less than” or “equal to”
(Socio economic status – low, middle, high or Likert
Scale)
does not state how much greater or less (in other
words, distance between categories is not known)
is used to measure attitude and opinion
considers all nominal level tests and Median can
also be calculated
 Percentile, Semi-quartile, Rank order coefficients
of correlation express only order
No absolute Zero
 CONT’D …
Interval
order categories
equal distance between variables
In addition to all ordinal tests, mean,
median and standard deviation can also be
calculated.
Addition and subtraction can be done.
cannot multiply or divide
Zero is arbitrary.
 CONT’D …
Ratio
is the highest level of measurement
Most precise
Ordered
Exact values
Equal intervals
Zero is not arbitrary – it is absolute; If a variable
equals 0, it implies that there is none of that
variable.
Only possible with physical measurement such
as weight, height, pulse, blood pressure, time, etc.
MEASUREMENT SCALES
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
Descriptive statistics
Mean, Median and Mode
Mean = average
Describes the center
 CONT’D …

Median
The value in the middle of the data
 CONT’D …
Mode
The most frequent value, number, etc
CONT’D …
 MEASURES OF DISPERSION
Range
extreme values in a set of observations
Variance
shows how dispersed the data are in a data set
is calculated as follows:
 subtract the mean from each of the observations in the data
set
 take the square of this difference
 divide the total of these by the number of observations
Standard Deviation
another measure of dispersion for interval and ratio scaled data
the spread of a distribution or the variability in the data
the square root of the variance
SOURCES OF ERROR IN MEASUREMENT
Respondent
Reluctance, lack of good knowledge about the subject
matter , fatigue, boredom, anxiety, etc
Situation
Lack of anonymity, mood, etc
Measurer
Behavior, style, look, incorrect coding, faulty tabulation,
etc
Instrument
Defective instrument
 complex words, ambiguous meanings, inadequate
space for responses, poor sampling, etc
 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
MEASUREMENT: VALIDITY, RELIABILITY
AND PRACTICALITY

Also known as “Tests of Sound

Measurement” is characterized by:
Validity
Reliability
Practicality
 CONT’D …
Validity
The extent to which a test measures what it is actually
expected to measure
High validity means results correspond to real
characteristics in the physical or social world.
Can be external or internal:
 External validity refers to generalizability of findings to
populations, settings, treatment variables and
measurement variables.
 Internal validity is its ability to measure what it aims to
measure.
 CONT’D …
Three types of internal validity
Content validity
 the extent to which a measuring instrument
provides adequate coverage of the topic under
study
Criterion-related validity
 the ability to predict some outcome. The
criteria may include:
 Relevance, freedom of bias, reliability,
availability
 Predictive validity and concurrent validity
Construct validity
 the degree to which scores on a test can be
accounted for by the explanatory constructs of
a sound theory
 CONT’D …
Reliability
The consistency of results
Two aspects
 Stability – securing consistent results with repeated measurements
of the same person and with the same instrument
 Equivalence – how much error may get introduced by different
investigators or different samples of the items being studied
Four types
 Test-retest reliability – reliable over time
 Parallel forms reliability – equivalence between two forms of the
same test
 Interrater reliability – how much two raters agree on their
judgments of an outcome of interest
 Internal consistency – whether the items in a test are consistent
with each other
 CONT’D …

Practicality
is more of operational
a characteristic of sound
measurement concerned with factors
such as:
 economy
 convenience, and
 interpretability.
 CONT’D …
Factors to consider while selecting and
constructing a measurement scale
 Research objectives
 Response types
 Data properties
 Number of dimensions
 Balanced or unbalanced
 Forced or unforced choices
 Number of scale points
 Rater errors
These factors influence the reliability, validity,
and practicality of the scale.
 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION
Types and sources of data – Primary and secondary
Primary
 collected afresh and for the first time
 original
 obtained either through observation or through direct
communication with respondents
 Questionnaire
 Survey
 Interview
 FGD
 Observation, photography, video, etc
Secondary
 collected by someone else and which have already
been passed through the statistical process
 DATA COLLECTION TOOLS OR
INSTRUMENTS
Questionnaire
a tool designed to collect and record information from many
people, groups or organizations in a consistent way.
a form composed of a number of questions
can be in hard or soft copy
can either be structured or unstructured questionnaire
 Structured questionnaire
 consist of definite, concrete and pre-determined questions
 simple to administer and relatively inexpensive to
analyze
 inappropriate to probe for attitudes and reasons for
certain actions or feelings
 CONT’D …
Merits of questionnaire
low cost
free from the bias of the researcher
adequate time to give well thought out answers
applicable for large samples and thus results are more
dependable and reliable
can be either closed or open
Demerits of questionnaire
Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires
only feasible for educated respondents
inbuilt inflexibility
slow
 DESIGNING A QUESTIONNAIRE
Basic principles
make sure you understand your target
respondents.
 The kind of language
 Their preferred method of communication
 Their basic demographics
Use an appropriate introduction that help boost
engagement and completion rates.
 Greet your respondents.
 Clearly articulate the purpose of the study.
 Keep them assured that the information you
collect from them will remain secret.
 CONT’D …
 Keep the vocabulary simple and short.
 avoid acronyms, abbreviations, jargon, technical
terms, and abstract or general words
 Ask only one thing at a time/Avoid double-barreled
questions
 Avoid hypothetical questions.
 Would you … if … ?
 Avoid double negatives.
 Do you oppose not allowing …?
 Beware of ‘leading’ questions.
 Would you say that …?
 How good is our HR/Financial system?
 Provide options that are mutually exclusive.
 CONT’D …
 You may use different types of items using Likert scale
depending on the purpose of your study.
 Agreement: Strongly agree, Agree, Neither agree nor
disagree, Disagree, Strongly disagree
 Extent: To a large extent, To some extent, To a limited
extent, Not sure, Not at all
 Quality: Very poor, Poor, Fair, Good, Excellent
 Likelihood: Not at all likely, Somewhat likely, Extremely
likely
 Experience: Very negative, Somewhat negative,
Neutral, Somewhat positive, Very positive
 Pretest your questionnaire.
Observing the aforementioned principles help avoid
respondent confusion, misunderstanding, lack of
comprehension, or response bias
 CONT’D …
Once you develop a questionnaire, it is good to review each item included in
the questionnaire. To this end, ask yourselves the following list of questions.
1.Will the item provide data in the format required by the research questions
or the hypotheses?
2.Is the item unbiased?
3.Will the item generate data at the level of measurement required for the
analysis?
4.Is there a strong likelihood that most respondents will answer the item
truthfully?
5.Do most respondents possess sufficient knowledge to answer the item?
6.Will most respondents be willing to answer the item, or is it too threatening
or too sensitive?
7.Does the item avoid ‘leading’ respondents to a specific answer?
8.Is the language used in the questionnaire clear and simple so that all
respondents are able to understand all of the questions?
 TASK SIX
Identify the problems in the below questions and
rewrite them.
1.Organizational culture acts as the social glue that bonds
people together and makes them feel part of the organizational
understanding.
2.Leader’s power to influence employee behavior or the course
of events in the organization is professional.
3.If the Bank spends time and resources to manage customer
relationships, it can attract new customers and retain the
existing ones.
4.Company have minimum and maximum waiting time and take
action if it is late different department working together /linkage.
5.Company produce the product based on order sheet/customer
demand
 INTERVIEW
 one of the tools used to collect data
 presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal
responses
 can be personal or phone interview
 can be structured or unstructured;
 Structured interview
 uses of a set of predetermined questions and is highly
standardized
 Unstructured interview
 is flexible
 Semi-structured
 Make sure the questions you put in your interview guide will allow
you to obtain adequate data.
 Pose open, rather than closed questions.
 Sequence interview questions from broad to narrow.
 Avoid the inclusion of possible responses in questions.
 Pose one question at a time.
 Avoid posing multi-part questions.
 CONT’D …
Merits
More and deep information can be obtained
Allows greater flexibility to restructure questions, specially in the case of
unstructured or semi-structured interviews
Allows to obtain personal information
Enables to control samples effectively
Keeps non-response very low.

Demerits
Is very expensive
Does not allow coverage of large samples
Is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are
required to various questions
Gives room for the bias of the interviewer
 FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD)
 a qualitative data collection tool where one or two researchers
and several participants meet as a group to discuss a given
research topic
 involves a moderator and note-taker (facilitators)
 eight to ten participants is recommendable – should not
exceed 12
 enables to access a broad range of views on a specific topic
 is good to obtain data on questions of why and how
General Points to Consider
 Identify individual participants by some convention other than
their real names.
 Ensure participants enjoy a location affording a maximum
degree of privacy.
 Ensure handling of common personality traits and emotional
states.
 OBSERVATION
 Data are collected by investigator’s own direct
observation without asking from the respondent.
 Is expensive
 Requires serious thinking and planning
 What should be observed?
 How should the observations be
documented/recorded?
 How can the accuracy of observation be ensured?
 Structured observation
 is appropriate in descriptive studies
 requires the use of observation checklist
 Unstructured observation
 Is appropriate in an exploratory study
 CONT’D …
Merits
enables to obtain data which serve as a check
against participants’ subjective reporting
allows researchers to develop a familiarity with the
cultural milieu
allows for insight into contexts, relationships,
behavior
can provide information previously unknown to
researchers
Demerits
time-consuming
difficult to document the data
an inherently subjective exercise
 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
 Respect the participants and the sites for
research.
 Do not put participants at risk, and respect
vulnerable populations.
 Protect the privacy of the participants.
 Clearly indicate the purpose of the data
collection.
 Clearly inform your respondents that the data
will be used only for research and will be kept
confidential.
 Obtain informed consent.
COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
Secondary data
already collected and analyzed by someone else
may either be published or unpublished data
Sources of published data include:
 reports and publications of the central, state, local, or
foreign governments, international bodies, associations,
individual scholars, universities, professionals, etc
 technical and trade journals, books, magazines, etc
Sources of unpublished data include:
 diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and
autobiographies
Require extra care
Before using secondary data, check:”
 reliability, suitability, adequacy of the data
 CONT’D …
Merits
Less expensive and time saving
More appropriate for longitudinal and comparative
studies
May result in unforeseen discoveries
Permanent and available
Demerits
May be collected for a purpose that does not match
one’s need
Unsuitability
Little or no chance for controlling data quality
Difficult to determine reliability of the data
DECIDING ON APPROPRIATE DATA
COLLECTION TOOL
 Nature and scope of the study
 Research questions and objectives
 Issues of time, finance
 Availability of and access to samples and
data
 Preferences of potential respondents
 Precision required
 Your skills
 Research design
USING MORE THAN ONE METHOD
 Enables to a researcher to triangulate the
data
 Helps to provide a general picture about
the subject matter
 EXERCISE

Discuss which data collection

tool or tools appeal(s) to your
proposed study topic. Why?
 DATA ORGANIZATION,
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
Data analysis is the process of:
turning a mass of collected data into order, structure and
meaning.
“representing the application of deductive and inductive
logic to the research and data analysis.”
“putting the raw quantitative information into a computer-
readable format.”
Data Analysis
requires researchers to “stay open and remain unbiased
towards unexpected patterns, expressions, and results”.
depends on the nature of the data – quantitative
qualitative.
involves the following important steps
 Encoding, Cleaning, Organizing, Presenting
 CONT’D …
Encoding
Code the data carefully – put the raw quantitative
information into a computer-readable format.
Check for completeness and accuracy.

Cleaning
any obvious data entry errors
 Outliers (really high or low numbers)
 Values entered for variables which do not
exist
 Example: 0 entered where 1=male, 2=female
 Missing values
 CONT’D …
Organizing the data
Organize your data in one place based on
the nature and purpose of your study.
Remove incomplete data or those data
which do not make sense.
Classify the data into sections.
Use headings and sub-headings
appropriately.
Validate the data – whether the collected
data sample is as per the pre-set standards.
 CONT’D …
Presentation
Textual - using words
Tabular
 Frequency Distribution Table
 Class Interval – numbers defining the class
 Class Frequency (f) – number of observations falling
in the class
 Class Boundaries – true class limits
 Class Size – the difference between two consecutive
upper limits or two consecutive lower limits
 Class Mark – midpoint or the middle value of a class
interval
Graphical
 Graph (Bar/Multiple Bar Graph)
 Chart (Pie/Line Chart)
TABLES, GRAPHS, BAR CHARTS
provide basic information about a set of data
display the distribution of a single categorical
variable
Indicate the number of times various sub-
categories of a certain phenomenon occur,
from which the percentage and the cumulative
percentage of their occurrence can be easily
calculated
 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
 begins with understanding the two main
approaches: deductive approach and inductive
approach
 The Deductive Approach
 involves analyzing qualitative data based on
a predetermined structure.
 is quick and easy
 can be used when a researcher has a fair
idea about the likely responses
 The Inductive Approach
 is not based on a predetermined structure.
 is a more time-consuming and thorough
approach.
 is often used when a researcher has very
little or no idea of
the research phenomenon.  
 CONT’D …
Steps
Arrange the Data
 Transcribe the data collected; converting all the data into a text format
 Either export the data into a spreadsheet or manually type in the data or choose
from any of the computer-assisted qualitative data analysis tools.
Organize all the Data
 Go back to the research objectives and organize the data based on the questions
asked.
 Avoid the temptations of working with unorganized data. 
Set a Code to the Data Collected
 categorize and assign properties and patterns to the collected data to compress a
tremendous amount of information collected.
 begin to build on the patterns to gain in-depth insight into the data that will help
make informed decisions
 Validate the Data
 Accuracy of your research design or methods
 Reliability 
Concluding the Analysis Process
 systematically present the data and the inferences of the findings
 CONT’D …
Types of qualitative data analysis
Summarising (condensation) of meanings
produce a summary of the key points that
emerge from undertaking this activity
Categorising (grouping) of meanings
developing categories and, subsequently,
attaching these categories to meaningful
chunks of data.
Structuring (ordering of meanings using
narrative)
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
ranges from simple counts such as the
frequency of occurrences to more complex
data such as test scores.
ranges from creating simple tables or
diagrams that show the frequency of
occurrence to establishing statistical
relationships between variables to complex
statistical modeling.
can be done either manually or by
computer-assisted software (Excel, SPSS,
STATA, etc).
 CONT’D …
is done using statistical tools:
Descriptive and Inferential statistics.
Descriptive analysis – statistically
describing, aggregating, and
presenting the constructs of interest
or associations between the
constructs
 Measures of Frequency
 Measures of Central Tendency
 Measures of Dispersion or Variation
 Measures of Position
 CONT’D …
Inferential Analysis
 is the statistical testing of hypotheses (theory
testing)
 attempts to explain what effect the independent
variable has on the dependent variable
 helps to evaluate the strength of relationships
between variables
 Correlation
 Cross-tabulation
 Regression analysis
 Frequency tables – ANOVA
 Analysis of variance – ANOVA
 Uses inferential statistics to reach conclusions
about associations between variables.
 Helps to determine whether results from a sample
hold for a population.
 CONT’D …
What does interpretation do?
Points to consider while writing interpretation
• Explain possible reasons for the results.
• Compare results with the results of previous
studies.
• Generalize from the results (be careful of
your words, remain tentative).
• Ask as many questions as possible to see
what your data mean.
• Let the facts speak for themselves; do not
force your data to prove your points or
hypothesis.
 HYPOTHESIS TESTING
 is a part of statistical analysis used to test assumptions made regarding
a population parameter.
 is generally used to compare:
 a single group with an external standard
 two or more groups with each other
 is intended to determine accurately if the null hypothesis can be
rejected.
 does not prove that null hypothesis is true or false.
 The following steps are recommended to test for statistical significance.
 State the null hypothesis.
 Choose the statistical test.
 Select the desired level of significance.
 Compute the calculated difference value.
 Obtain the critical test value (the criterion that defines the region of
rejection from the region of acceptance of the null hypothesis).
 Interpret the test (If the calculated value is larger than the critical
value, we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the
alternative hypothesis is supported. If the critical value is larger, we
conclude we have failed to reject the null hypothesis).
 TESTS OF SIGNIFICANCE
Two types of Tests: parametric and nonparametric
Parametric tests
are more powerful because their data are derived from
interval and ratio measurements.
Assumptions for parametric tests include:
 The observations must be independent.
 The observations should be drawn from normally
distributed populations, which should have equal
variances.
 The measurement scales should be at least interval so
that arithmetic operations can be used with them.
Nonparametric tests
are used to test hypotheses with nominal and ordinal data.
are used when normality of distributions cannot be assumed
as in nominal or ordinal data.
STATEMENTS FOR REJECTING THE
NULL HYPOTHESIS
“The Null Hypothesis was rejected.”
“A statistically significant finding (difference
, correlation) was obtained.”
“A reliable difference was observed.”
“P is less than a small decimal value (e.g.,
p<.05)”.
 STATEMENTS FOR FAILING TO
REJECT THE NULL HYPOTHESIS
“The null hypothesis was retained.”
“The null hypothesis was tenable.”
“No significant difference was found.”
“No reliable differences were observed.”
 HOW TO SELECT A TEST
In order to select a particular significance
test, a researcher should ask as many
questions as possible. These include:
Does the test involve one sample, two
samples, or k (more than two) samples?
If two samples or k samples are involved,
are the individual cases independent or
related?
Is the measurement scale nominal,
ordinal, interval, or ratio?
 RECOMMENDED STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES BY
MEASUREMENT AND LEVEL OF TESTING SITUATION

Source: COOPER and SCHINDLER (2014, p. 443)

 MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS
 Is done to see patterns of data, make clear comparisons, discard
unwanted information and study multiple factors at once.
 The following are some of the multivariate techniques.
 Regression analysis: to determine the relationship between a
dependent variable and one or more independent variable.
 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA): to determine the relationship
between collections of data by analyzing the difference in the
means.
 Interdependent analysis: to determine the relationship between a
set of variables among themselves.
 Discriminant analysis: to classify observations in two or more
distinct set of categories.
 Classification and cluster analysis: to find similarity in a group
of observations.
 Factor analysis: to crunch big data into small, interpretable forms.
 TASK TO BE EVALUATED
We have now covered the components useful to write a
research proposal. Write a research proposal. Your
proposal should:
describe the research problem you identified;
clearly articulate the research questions, objectives,
significance, and scope of the study;
demonstrate your knowledge of the literature relevant
to the research problem;
describe the research methods to be used, and justify
why and explain how these methods will be used;
provide a clear plan for analyzing the data;
communicate research proposal clearly and
professionally.
Business Research Methods and
the Research Report Writing
 The writing process
 Different stages
 Planning
 Writing the first
draft
 Revising
 Editing
 Proofreading
 PLANNING
 Topic
 Resources: time, materials
 Thesis statement
 Research objectives
 Reading and note-taking
 Organizing notes by
Theme
Methodology
Chronology
 WRITING THE FIRST DRAFT

 Put the different sections together

 Check if the first draft, upon
completion,:
 Establishes a clear direction and
sense of beginning, middle,
and end
 Consists of
 The Front-Matter
 The Body and
 The Back-Matter
Which of the following rooms do you
like? Why?
 THE FRONT-MATTER
 Cover and Title pages
 Table of Contents
 Abstract
 Acknowledgements
 List of Tables and/or Figures
 Acronyms and/or Abbreviations
 Board of Examiners
 Declaration, Endorsement, Approval
pages
 COVER AND TITLE PAGES
 The Cover Page consists of:
 The logo, name of university and the specific
school/institute/faculty/department at the top -
centered
 Title and By… in the middle centered
 Year, university name in acronym (optional) and city
at the bottom right
 The Title Page consists of:
 Title at the top centered
 By… in the middle centered
 Advisor’s name in the middle centered after By…
 The phrase “A Thesis submitted to… in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of
………” in the middle centered
 Year, university name in acronym (optional) and city
at the bottom right
 TITLE
 Describes what the study is about
in a condensed manner
 Should be brief, attractive and clear
 Depending on the type of the study,
usually a title reflects:
 The variables
 The relationship between variables
 The population to which the results
may be applied
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Is an outline of the major contents a paper

Shows the organizational structure of a
paper
Aims at helping readers locate specific
information quickly
Has sub-headings indented three lines of
space before the preceding heading and
page numbers for each heading
Should consist of headings in the same
way they appear in the body
 CONT’D …
 Has all major divisions capitalized
 Has subheadings appear in either:
 Headline style (initials of all words
written in block letters except articles
and prepositions)
 Sentence style (only initial letters
written in block letters)
 Page numbers should be justified
 Does not show title, blank, and
dedication pages
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

 A statement that recognizes

individuals and institutions
that contributed to the thesis
and
 Describes how they
contributed to the work
 ABSTRACT
 Is a standalone unit
 Is a brief, comprehensive summary
of the major contents of a thesis
 should describe:
 the problem and the purpose
 the participants
 the essential features of study methods
 the basic findings, including effect sizes
and confidence intervals and/or statistical
significance levels
 the conclusions and recommendations
LIST OF TABLES AND/OR FIGURES

 Identifies the location of tables/figures

indicating page numbers
 Tables/figures should:
be integrated well with the texts
have a title or caption
be numbered sequentially
 If the title for a table is longer than
one line, use single-spacing between
the lines of the title
 A title of a table/figure should appear
the same across the paper
 ACRONYMS AND/OR ABBREVIATIONS

 A page which consists of shortened

versions of words and/or phrases to
speed up communication
 Acronym refers to a new word
consisting of the first letters of a
phrase and can sometimes be
pronounced as a word (Eg. ASAP,
UNESCO, NATO)
 Abbreviation is a shortened form of a
word (Eg. St. to mean Street or Saint,
Ave. to mean Avenue)
 BOARD OF EXAMINERS

 A page dedicated to signatures

of board of examiners
 Carries:
 Name of the Institution
 Title of the work
 Name of the writer
 Names of board of examiners who
put their signatures as an
indication of approval of the work
 DECLARATION, ENDORSEMENT,
APPROVAL PAGES

 State that the work:

 Is original and belongs to the
writer
 Has been endorsed by the
relevant authority
 Has been approved
 THE BODY

Chapter One
Chapter Two
Chapter Three
Chapter Four
Chapter Five
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Background
Statement of the problem
Objectives
Significance
Delimitation (Scope of the Study)
Limitations
Operational definitions (if any)
Organization of the paper
INTRODUCTION/BACKGROUND
 Provides background/context for a research
undertaking to hook readers
 Describes relevant scholarship (previous
studies)
 Indicates current status of the area under
investigation
 Shows the gap
 Is a tool through which you can convince your
reader that your research is unique and has
an added value
 Concludes with a brief but formal statement of
the purpose of the research that summarizes
the material preceding it
 CONT’D …
 Check if the introduction addresses the
following questions:
What is the problem?
Why is it important to study this problem?
How does the study relate to previous work
in the area? If other aspects of this study
have been reported previously, how does
this report differ from, and build on the
earlier report?
What are the objectives of the study?
What are the theoretical and practical
implications of the study?
 THESIS STATEMENT

 Main idea of the paper

 Your opinion or point of
view
 Purpose of the paper
 Answer to the research
question(s)
 Clarity
THESIS STATEMENT PRESENTATION
Introduce the issue by providing a brief
background that defines, describes, and
explains it
Assert your thesis as the position your paper will
support
Summarize the counterclaims against your
position. Do this briefly and before you state your
own claims, so that your claims refute the
opposition and conclude your paper
State claims that support your thesis and refute
the counterclaims
Provide evidence for each claim your paper
makes
Conclude by restating your thesis
 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
 Are specific means of
answering the research
questions
 Are written using action
verbs
 Are listed, no more than a
sentence a piece
 Should be SMART
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

 Discusses what the

researcher thinks would be
the advantages of
conducting a study
 Explains who would benefit
from the study and how
 DELIMITATION/SCOPE OF THE STUDY

 Boundaries of your thesis

 Can be controlled
 Are set so that your goals
do not become
impossibly large to
complete
 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

 Are constraints
 List out problems you, as a
researcher, faced and the
impact these problems had
on the findings of the
research.
 Are often beyond the control
of the researcher
ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY

 Introduces the paper

 Shows the outline of the
major sections of the paper
 Indicates the sequence
 Should be brief
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

 Defines and clarifies the problem;

 summarizes previous investigations;
 identifies relations, contradictions,
gaps, and inconsistencies in the
literature; and
 suggest the next step(s) in solving the
problem.
 Is organized around and directly related
to the thesis or research question
 Does NOT repeat work that has been
done before.
 CONT’D …
It should be composed of:
 An introduction that establishes
the importance of the topic, the
scope of the review, and the
organization of the paper
 The major section headers and
sub-sections that follow the same
organization as the organization
established in the introduction
 Summary of findings, implications
of findings, and discussion
 AVOIDING PLAGIARISM
 Use your own words
 Acknowledge sources (Cite)
 Use the following ways to
avoid plagiarism
Quoting
Summarizing
Paraphrasing
 QUOTING
 Using others’ materials as they are
written in the source document to:
 Affirm your statement
 Capture the precise language of an
expert who made the point
particularly well
 Discuss the source’s exact choice of
words to better understand complex
subjects or specialized language
 Draw attention to an important point
 Never let a quotation stand on its own.
 SUMMARIZING
 Giving a condensed
version of somebody’s
ideas
 Discussing the most
important points of the
ideas you borrow
 PARAPHRASING
 is changing a text so that it is expressed
in a different way from the source without
changing the original meaning
 is vital in academic writing to avoid the
risk of plagiarism
 How do you do it?
 Change vocabulary by using synonyms
 Change word class (Eg. N, V, Adj. etc)
 Change word order
 Change structure of the sentence
How to write a good essay- Paraphrasing the q
uestion
 CITING
In the body (in-text) and in the
reference section (end-of-text)
referencing
In-text citation is done for:
 Theories, statements, claims, data
such as statistics, graphs,
population figures, financials
No need to do in-text citation for:
 Dates in history, scientific truth,
election results, general knowledge
 CONT’D …

 When?
 As you use them. Record:
 bibliographic details
 brief summary of content
 supplementary information
 Put them in the body and in
the reference sections
 PARAPHRASE THE FOLLOWING TEXTS

Author: Simon Kindal

Title of the book: How to Write a Research
Paper
Year of publication: 2015
Edition: 1st Edition
Page: 46
“Finally by critically evaluating the evidence,
comparing the theories and by considering
how the theory may apply to real world
situations we can reach our own well-justified
conclusions and these conclusions are our
contribution to knowledge.”
 CONT’D …
Author: Simon Kindal
Title of the book: How to Write a Research
Paper
Year of publication: 2015
Edition: 1st Edition
Page: 46
“Another common flaw researchers often
make is to assume that a causal relationship
exists just because there is a relationship
between two events. A causal relationship
means that one event has caused the other.”
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODS

 Give detailed information about data collection and

analysis, including,
 Type of research, sources of data, population, sample
size, sampling techniques, data collection tools, data
collection, presentation and processing methods, ethical
considerations.
 Justify why you have chosen the methods, samples,
sampling techniques, etc.
 Make sure that all components of the research methods
are discussed well.
 Mind the tense you use.
 Remain consistent in using the appropriate tense
throughout your work.
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, ANAYLSIS AND
INTERPRETATION

 Data presentation, analysis and

interpretation
 different tools
 describe
 tell meanings of data beyond
numbers
 integration of different types of data
 compare and contrast your findings
with findings of previous researchers
 DATA PRESENTATION
 Classify your ideas into sections.
 Use headings and sub-headings
appropriately.
 If you use tables and figures,
 present them near the relevant part.
 they should precede the discussion.
 they should have a title or a caption as
the case may be.
 they should present different data. In
other words, a particular set of data
cannot be presented by tables and
figures simultaneously.
 CONT’D …
 Titles for tables appear at the
top and for figures at the
bottom.
 Tables and figures should be
consecutively numbered.
 Titles should:
 Be written as phrases
 Not be in question or
statement form
 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
 After presenting the results, you:
 Evaluate and interpret their implications,
especially with respect to your research/questions
or hypotheses. Draw inferences and conclusions
from the results.
 Emphasize any theoretical or practical
consequences of the results.
 Explain possible reasons for the results
 Compare results with the results of previous
studies
 Generalize from the results (be careful of your
words, remain tentative)
 Let the facts speak for themselves, do not
force your data to prove your points or hypothesis
 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATION

Summary
Begins by briefly describing the purpose
and methods of the study
Presents textual generalizations of
findings of the important data consisting of
text and numbers without deductions, nor
inference, nor interpretation
No need for elaborating or explaining
findings
Should be precise
No new data
 CONCLUSION
 Consists of statements of inferences,
deductions, abstractions, implications,
interpretations, general statements,
and/or generalizations based upon
the findings
 Answer the specific questions raised at
the beginning of the investigation in the
order they are given under the
statement of the problem.
 Should not be drawn from implied or
indirect effects of the findings.
 RECOMMENDATION
 Is a list of ideas/suggestions
for corrective actions
Action items and/or
Further studies
 Should be
specifically related to the
findings
carefully worded
realistic
 THE BACK-MATTER
 References/Bibliography
 Appendices
 Signed declaration
 REFERENCES
 acknowledge the works of previous
scholars and provide a reliable way to
locate them
 enable readers to retrieve and use the
sources
 must be correct and complete
 The word References should appear in
uppercase letters centered.
 Remain consistent in referencing
sources.
 Use alphabetical order to list the
resources.
 CONT’D …
 What should be included?
 the name of the author (or authors);
 editor (if there is one);
 book title or article headline;
 name of the publication;
 publisher, place and year of publication;
 volume, issue, and page numbers (in the case
of periodicals)
 In the case of online sources, add the
following:
 DOI or
 The URL or Web address and the date on
which you accessed the source
 CONT’D …
 A book
 A journal article
 An article/a chapter in a book
 Multiple authors
 Works with no identified author or
with an anonymous author
 Works without date
 Revised editions
 Second hand references
 Theses and dissertations
 Unpublished works
 CONT’D …
 Book
 Author, A. A. (1967). Title of work. Location: Publisher.
 Author, A. A. (1997). Title of work. Retrieved from
http://www,xxxxxxx
 Author, A. A. (2006). Title of work. doi:xxxxx
 Editor, A. A. (Ed.). (1986). Title of work. Location: Publisher.
 Journals, magazines, newspapers, and newsletters
 Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Title of article.
Title of Periodical, xx, pp—pp. doi:xx.xxxxxxxxxx
 A chapter in a book or entry in a reference book
 Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (1995). Title of chapter or entry. In
A. Editor, B. Editor, & C. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pp. xxx
—xxx). Location: Publisher.
 Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (1993). Title of chapter or entry. In
A. Editor & B. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pp. xxx—xxx).
Retrieved from …
 Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (1995). Title of chapter or entry. In
A. Editor, B. Editor, & C. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pp. xxx
—xxx). Location: Publisher. doi:xxxxxxxx
 CONT’D …
Technical and research reports
Author, A. A. (1998). Title of work (Report No.
xxx). Location: Publisher.
A doctoral dissertation or master's thesis available
from a database service
Author, A. A. (2003). Title of doctoral dissertation
or master's thesis (Doctoral dissertation or
master's thesis). Retrieved from Name of
database. (Accession or Order No.)
For an unpublished dissertation or thesis
Author, A. A. (1978). Title of doctoral dissertation
or master's thesis (Unpublished doctoral
dissertation or master's thesis). Name of
Institution, Location.
 APPENDICES
 A place for:
complex tables
statistical tests
supporting documents
copies of forms, letters
data gathering tools, and
other evidence important for
later support
 REVISING
 Get the whole paper just right.
 Reread, rethink, and reconstruct your ideas
on paper until they match those in mind.
 Resee one’s approach, topic, argument,
evidence, organization, and conclusion.
 Check if each paragraph and /or section:
 describes a single idea;
 is self-contained;
 starts with a summary statement;
 is supported by details that explain,
expand, and develop the initial summary
statement;
 there are extraneous comments.
 CONT’D …

 Asking the aforementioned

specific questions will help
you do the following as the
case may be.
 Adding
 Rearranging
 Removing
 Replacing
 EDITING
 Stylistic work, changing language
more than ideas
 Fine-tuning a manuscript line by line
 Paying attention to the smaller details
of writing
 Getting the particular sentences and
words just right
 Working on matters of style, precision,
diction, and correct documentation
 Checking for repetition, clarity,
grammar, spelling, punctuation, etc
 PROOFREADING

 The last stage of editing

 Reading your final copy for
typing errors
 Checking spelling,
punctuation, capitalization,
and the like
 LANGUAGE ACCURACY
Write sentences that:
 Ensure agreement
 Limit the use of “run on” sentences
 Use appropriate punctuations
Avoid using contractions,
symbols.
Use linking words and phrases
Avoid addressing readers as
“you”
 Eg. You can see in Table 1. …
 CONT’D …
 Pay attention to your word choice. Avoid using:
 Expressions with no clear limits, such as
 a lot, fairly, quite, really, slightly, somewhat,
etc.
 Words of personal judgment, such as
 beautiful, certainly, disappointing, disturbing,
hopefully, inconvenient, luckily, miraculously,
nice, regrettable, remarkable, unfortunately
 Words that are only fillers, such as
 alright, basically, in a sense, indeed,
 Casual colorful catchwords and phrases, such
as
 agree to disagree, easier said than done,
few and far between, food for thought
 Before submitting, ask yourselves the
following important questions?
 Is the title crisp, appropriate, informative and attractive?
 Does the abstract give the reader a clear idea of what to
expect in the paper?
 Does the paper have all the essential components?
 Does each component do its job well?
 Are the components well balanced?
 Is the structure of the paper clear and transition smooth?
 Is the evidence provided adequate?
 Is the text free from biased expressions?
 Is the text free from language errors?
 Is the punctuation appropriate?
 Is the text free from factual errors?
 Have you acknowledged everything you have borrowed?
 Is the visual support clear, attractive, appropriate?
 Have you numbered and labelled your exhibits?
 THE FINAL LOOK
 Before submission, check if the
paper:
 appears neat and organized;
 is well outlined;
 has all the three sections of the paper in
their complete forms;
 answers the research questions;
 has no many quotations;
 properly acknowledges sources used;
 is revised, edited and proofread.
 CONT’D …

 To this effect, examine the:

 layout/presentation,
 content/organization, and
 grammar of your paper.
 WHY DO RESEARCH
REPORTS/THESES FAIL?
There is no logical structure.
Ideas are not well thought out.
Work is disorganized.
Assumptions which cannot be
justified by evidence are made.
There are too many grammatical
and spelling mistakes.
Sentences and/or paragraphs are
too long or too obscure.
 CONT’D …
 Sentences are taken from
other sources.
 There is too much repetition.
 There is too much irrelevant
information.
 Summary and conclusions
are weak.
 REFERENCES
Al Maskari, K. M. (2013). A Practical Guide to Business
Writing: Writing in English for non-native speakers.
Sussex: Wiley.
Anne, W. (2009). Academic Writing Guide: A Step-by- Step
Guide to Writing Academic Papers. Bratislava: City
University of Seattle.
American Psychological Association. (2006). Publication
Manual of the American Psychologica/Association. (6th
Ed.). Washington DC.: APA.
Cooper D.R. and Schindler P.S. (2014). Business
Research Methods. (12th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
Fulwiler, T. (2002). College Writing: A Personal
Approach to Academic Writing. 3rd ed. Portsmouth:
Boynton/Cook Publishers, Inc.
 Whish you
all the very best!