CHAPTER

13
DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
 OBJECTIVES
● Describe the organs of the digestive tract, and give the function of each.
● Describe the accessory organs and explain the role of each in digestion.
● Identify and use the roots pertaining to the digestive system and accessory
organs.
● Describe the major disorders of the digestive system.
● Define medical terms used in reference to the digestive system.
● Interpret abbreviations used in referring to the gastrointestinal system.
● Analyze the medical terms in case studies related to the digestive system.
 Organs and Accessory Organs Of The Digestive
Tract
● The Oral Cavity or Mouth
○ Digestion begins in the mouth also called the oral cavity.
○ food is chewed into small bits by the teeth
○ There are 32 teeth in a complete adult set, including incisors and
canines to bite food and molars for grinding
○ The palate is the roof of the mouth; the anterior portion (hard
palate) is formed by bone, and the posterior part (soft palate) is
made of soft tissue.
○ The fleshy uvula, used in speech production, hangs from the soft
palate.
○ Used to bite and chew food. Mixes food with saliva, which
contains salivary amylase, an enzyme that begins the digestion of
starch. Shapes food into small portions, which the tongue pushes
into the pharynx.
● Pharynx
○ Portions of moistened food are moved toward the pharynx
(throat), where swallowing reflexes push them into the esophagus.
● Esophagus
○ Moves food into the stomach by peristalsis.
○ At its distal end, where it joins the stomach, the esophagus has
muscle tissue that contracts to keep stomach contents from
refluxing (flowing backward)

Image and Text : (Digestive System: Function, Organs & Anatomy, n.d.)
 Organs and Accessory Organs Of The Digestive
Tract
● Stomach
○ The stomach is a hollow organ, or "container," that holds food
while it is being mixed with stomach enzymes.
○ Stores food; churns to mix food with water and digestive juices.
Secretes protein-digesting hydrochloric acid (HCl) and the
enzyme pepsin.
● Small intestine
○ Made up of three segments — the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
○ a 22-foot long muscular tube that breaks down food using
enzymes released by the pancreas and bile from the liver
○ Secretes enzymes. Receives secretions from the accessory organs,
which digest and neutralize food.
○ Site of most digestion and absorption of nutrients into the
circulation.
○ Contents of the small intestine start out semi-solid and end in a
liquid form after passing through the organ.
○ Once the nutrients have been absorbed and the leftover-food
residue liquid has passed through the small intestine, it then
moves on to the large intestine

Image and Text : (Digestive System: Function, Organs & Anatomy, n.d.)
 Organs and Accessory Organs Of The Digestive
Tract
● Pancreas
○ The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum that
break down protein, fats and carbohydrates.
○ The pancreas also makes insulin, passing it directly into the
bloodstream. Insulin is the chief hormone in your body for
metabolizing sugar.
● Liver
○ Its main job within the digestive system is to process the nutrients
absorbed from the small intestine
○ Bile from the liver secreted into the small intestine also plays an
important role in digesting fat and some vitamins
○ It takes the raw materials absorbed by the intestine and makes all
the various chemicals your body needs to function
○ also detoxifies potentially harmful chemicals. It breaks down and
secretes many drugs that can be toxic to your body
● Gallbladder
○ The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile from the liver, and
then releases it into the duodenum in the small intestine to help
absorb and digest fats.

Image and Text : (Digestive System: Function, Organs & Anatomy, n.d.)
 Organs and Accessory Organs Of The Digestive
Tract
● Colon
○ The colon is responsible for processing waste so that emptying
your bowels is easy and convenient.
○ It’s a 6-foot long muscular tube that connects the small intestine
to the rectum
○ Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed
through the colon by means of peristalsis, first in a liquid state
and ultimately in a solid form
● Rectum
○ The rectum is a straight, 8-inch chamber that connects the colon
to the anus.
○ The rectum's job is to receive stool from the colon, let you know
that there is stool to be evacuated (pooped out) and to hold the
stool until evacuation happens.
● Anus
○ The anus is the last part of the digestive tract.
○ It is a 2-inch long canal consisting of the pelvic floor muscles and
the two anal sphincters
○ The lining of the upper anus is able to detect rectal contents. It
lets you know whether the contents are liquid, gas or solid.

Image and Text : (Digestive System: Function, Organs & Anatomy, n.d.)
Roots Pertaining To The Digestive System And Accessory
Roots
Organs
Meaning Example
bucc/o cheek buccoversion: turning toward the
cheek

dent/o, dent/i tooth, teeth edentulous: without teeth

gloss/o tongue glossoplegia : paralysis (-plegia) of

the tongue

ile/o ileum ileitis: inflammation of the ileum

col/o, colon/o colon coloclysis: irrigation (-clysis) of the

colon

hepat/o liver hepatocyte: a liver cell

pancreat/o pancreas Pancreatotropic: acting on the

pancreas
Major Disorders
● DIGESTIVE TRACT
○ Infection
○ Ulcers
Of The Digestive ○
○
Cancer
Obstructions
System ● ACCESSORY ORGANS
○ Hepatitis
○ Cirrhosis
○ Gallstones
○ Pancreatitis

(Digestive Disorders, n.d.)

Abbreviations Used In Referring To The Gastrointestinal
Abbreviation
System Description
BM = Bowel movement A bowel movement is the last stop in the movement of food
through your digestive tract

CBD = Common bile duct A tube that carries bile from the liver and gallbladder, through
the pancreas, and into the small intestine

EGD = a procedure that allows the doctor to examine the inside of the
Esophagogastroduodenoscopy esophagus, stomach, and duodenum

GI = Gastrointestinal Refers to the stomach and intestines.

Medical Terms Used In Reference To The Digestive System
Medical Term Description

bile The fluid secreted by the liver that emulsifies fats and aids in
their absorption

hepatic portal system A special circulatory pathway that brings blood directly from the
abdominal organs to the liver for
processing

lacteal A lymphatic capillary in a villus of the small intestine

peristalsis Wave-like contractions of an organ’s walls; moves material

through an organ or duct

peritoneum The large serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and
supports the abdominal organs
 Case Study 13-1 : Cholecystectomy
Medical Term Description

Cholelithiasis presence of stones in the gallbladder

Laparoscopic endoscopic surgery of the gallbladder

cholecystectomy

Cholecystitis inflammation of the gallbladder

cholecystangiography radiographic study of the gallbladder and biliary system

 Case Study 13-2 : Colonoscopy With Biopsy
Medical Term Description

pyloric sphincter ring of muscle that regulates the distal opening of the colon

biopsy surgical excision of tissue for pathology examination

Dysphagia difficulty in swallowing

CHAPTER 14
URINARY
SYSTEM
 OBJECTIVES
● Describe the functions of the urinary system.
● Name and describe the organs of the urinary tract, and cite the functions of each.
● Identify the portions of the nephron.
● Explain the relationship between the kidney and the blood circulation.
● Describe the processes involved in urine formation.
● Explain how urine is transported and released from the body.
● Identify and use the roots pertaining to the urinary system.
● Describe six major disorders of the urinary system.
● Interpret abbreviations used in reference to the urinary system.
● Analyze medical terms in case studies pertaining to the urinary system.
 Functions Of The Urinary System
● Removal of metabolic waste products from the body (mainly urea and uric acid). Metabolic wastes and excess ions
are filtered out of the blood, along with water, and leave the body in the form of urine.
● Maintains water balance: adjusts blood volume and blood pressure. The renal system alters water retention and
thirst to slowly change blood volume and keep blood pressure in a normal range.
● Assist in maintaining electrolyte / salt balance (e.g., sodium, potassium, and calcium). Maintain salt balance in
order to control blood volume
● Assist in maintaining acid base / pH balance of blood (7.35-7.45) by controlling the loss of hydrogen ions and
bicarbonate ions in urine.
● Secretion of hormones. Example : Erythropoietin / EPO.

(Lumen Learning & OpenStax, n.d.)

 Organs Of The Urinary Tract
● Kidneys
○ They remove wastes, control the body’s fluid balance, and keep the
right levels of electrolytes.
○ The kidneys lie on either side of the spine in the retroperitoneal space
between the parietal peritoneum and the posterior abdominal wall,
well protected by muscle, fat, and ribs.
○ The kidney has three regions:
■ Renal Cortex
● The renal cortex is granular due to the presence of
nephrons—the functional unit of the kidney
■ Renal Medulla
● The medulla consists of multiple pyramidal tissue
masses, called the renal pyramids. In between the
pyramids are spaces called renal columns through
which the blood vessels pass.
■ Renal Pelvis
● The renal pelvis leads to the ureter on the outside of
the kidney. The ureters are urine-bearing tubes that
exit the kidney and empty into the urinary bladder.
■ The renal hilum is the entry and exit site for structures
servicing the kidneys: vessels, nerves, lymphatics, and
ureters.

mage & Text (Lumen Learning & OpenStax, n.d.)

 Organs Of The Urinary Tract
● Ureters
○ The upper half of each ureter is located in the abdomen and the lower
half is in the pelvis.
○ approximately 20 to 30 centimeters long in adults
○ The wall of the ureter has three layers: the outer layer, made of
fibrous connective tissue; the middle layer, made of smooth muscle;
and a moist, inner lining that protects the surface of the cells.
○ The ureters’ role in the process is to carry urine from the kidneys to
the bladder.
○ The ureters work constantly, emptying urine into the bladder about
every 10 to 15 seconds.
● Bladder
○ The urinary bladder is a muscular sac in the pelvis, just above and
behind the pubic bone
○ When empty, the bladder is about the size and shape of a pear
○ The bladder is lined by layers of muscle tissue that stretch to hold
urine
○ The normal capacity of the bladder is 400-600 mL

Image and Text: (The Bladder (Human Anatomy): Function, Picture, Location,
Definition, 2009)
 Organs Of The Urinary Tract
● Urethra
○ The male urethra is approximately 15-20cm long.
○ In addition to urine, the male urethra transports semen
○ male urethra can be divided anatomically into three parts
■ Prostatic urethra
■ Membranous urethra
■ Penile (bulbous) urethra
○ In females, the urethra is relatively short (approximately 4cm)
○ It begins at the neck of the bladder, and passes inferiorly through the
perineal membrane and muscular pelvic floor.

(TeachMeAnatomy, 2019)
 Portions Of The Nephron

(Lumen Learning & OpenStax, n.d.-a)

Relationship Between The
Kidney And The Blood
Circulation

The heart pumps blood filled with oxygen through all parts of your body, including the
kidneys. The kidneys clean the blood, removing waste products and extra water. Without
the kidneys, your blood would have too much waste and water. Without the heart, your
kidneys would not have the oxygen filled blood needed to do its many important jobs.
Without the help of your kidneys, the heart would be working too hard or would not
function at all. A healthy functioning cardiovascular system is important for your kidneys
to their job.

(The Heart and Kidney Connection, 2021)

 ● Filtration
○ During filtration, blood enters the afferent
arteriole and flows into the glomerulus where
filterable blood components, such as water and
nitrogenous waste, will move towards the inside
of the glomerulus, and non filterable components,
such as cells and serum albumins, will exit via the
Processes Involved In efferent arteriole. These filterable components
accumulate in the glomerulus to form the
Urine Formation glomerular filtrate.
○ Normally, about 20% of the total blood pumped
by the heart each minute will enter the kidneys to
undergo filtration; this is called the filtration
fraction. The remaining 80% of the blood flows
through the rest of the body to facilitate tissue
perfusion and gas exchange.

(Libretexts, 2020)
 ● Reabsorption
○ The next step is reabsorption, during which
molecules and ions will be reabsorbed into the
circulatory system. The fluid passes through the
components of the nephron (the proximal/distal
Processes Involved In convoluted tubules, loop of Henle, the collecting

Urine Formation duct) as water and ions are removed as the fluid
osmolarity (ion concentration) changes. In the
collecting duct, secretion will occur before the
fluid leaves the ureter in the form of urine.

(Libretexts, 2020)
 ● Secretion
○ During secretion some substances such as
hydrogen ions, creatinine, and drugs—will be
removed from the blood through the peritubular
Processes Involved In capillary network into the collecting duct. The end
product of all these processes is urine, which is
Urine Formation essentially a collection of substances that has not
been reabsorbed during glomerular filtration or
tubular reabsorption.

(Libretexts, 2020)
 Transport And Removal Of Urine

● Urine is drained from the renal pelvis and carried by the left and right ureters to the urinary bladder
● As the bladder fills, it expands upward from a stable triangle at its base.
● This triangle, the trigone, is marked by the ureteral openings and the urethral opening below
● The trigone’s stability prevents urine from refluxing into the ureters.
● Fullness stimulates a reflex contraction of the bladder muscle and expulsion of urine through the urethra.
● The voiding (release) of urine, called urination or more technically, micturition, is regulated by two sphincters
(circular muscles) that surround the urethra.
● The superior muscle, the internal urethral sphincter, is around the entrance to the urethra and functions
involuntarily; the inferior muscle, the external urethral sphincter, is under conscious control.
(Cohen & Jones, 2022)
 Roots Pertaining To The Urinary System

Roots Meaning Example

ren/o kidney suprarenal: above the kidney

nephr/o kidney nephrosis: any noninflammatory

disease condition of the kidney

glomerul/o glomerulus juxtaglomerular: near the glomerulus

pyel/o renal pelvis pyelectasis: dilatation of the renal

pelvis
 Disorders Of The Urinary System
● Infections
○ Organisms that infect the urinary tract generally enter through the urethra and ascend toward the
bladder, producing cystitis.
● Glomerulonephritis
○ a specific disorder that follows an immunologic reaction. It is usually a response to infection in
another system, commonly a streptococcal infection of the respiratory tract or a skin infection
● Nephrotic Syndrome
○ A disease in which the glomeruli become overly permeable and allow the loss of proteins
● Renal Failure
○ Chronic renal failure results from a gradual loss of nephrons. As more and more nephrons are
destroyed, the kidneys slowly lose the ability to perform their normal functions
● Urinary Stones
○ Urinary lithiasis (presence of stones) may be related to infection, irritation, diet, or hormone
imbalances that lead to increased calcium in the blood.
○ Most urinary calculi (stones) are made up of calcium salts
● Cancer
○ Carcinoma of the bladder has been linked to occupational exposure to chemicals, parasitic
infections, and cigarette smoking. (Cohen & Jones, 2022)
Abbreviations Used In Reference To The Urinary System
Abbreviation Description

ARF) = Acute renal failure occurs when your kidneys suddenly become unable to filter waste products from
your blood

ATN = Acute tubular necrosis a kidney disorder involving damage to the tubule cells of the kidneys

CCPD = Compliance a measure of the lung expandability

CPAP = Continuous cyclic peritoneal Requires the use of a special dialysis machine that can be used in the home
dialysis

EPO = Erythropoietin a glycoprotein hormone, naturally produced by the peritubular cells of the kidney,
that stimulates red blood cell production.
 Case Study 14-1: Renal Calculi

Medical Term Description

intravenous pyelogram Intravenous injection of contrast dye and radiographic study of the urinary tract

hematuria Presence of blood in the urine

Cystoscopy Referring to endoscopy of the urinary bladder

Percutaneous nephrolithotomy Surgical incision for removal of a kidney stone

Nocturia Getting up to go to the bathroom at night

lithotripsy Crushing a stone

 Case Study 14-2: End-Stage Renal Disease

Medical Term Description

Oliguria Production of a reduced amount of urine

kidney transplant Kidney replacement

 References
1. Cohen, J. B., & Jones, A. S. (2022). Medical Terminology: An Illustrated Guide: An Illustrated Guide. Jones &
Bartlett Learning.
2. Digestive Disorders. (n.d.). Johns Hopkins Medicine. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-
prevention/digestive-disorders
3. Digestive System: Function, Organs & Anatomy. (n.d.). Cleveland Clinic.
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/7041-digestive-system
4. Libretexts. (2020, August 14). 24.3A: Overview of Urine Formation. Medicine LibreTexts.
https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anatomy_and_Physiology/Book:_Anatomy_and_Physiology_(Boundless)/
24:__Urinary_System/24.3:_Physiology_of_the_Kidneys/24.3A:_Overview_of_Urine_Formation
5. Lumen Learning & OpenStax. (n.d.-a). Nephron – Structure | BIO103: Human Biology.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-dutchess-ap1/chapter/nephrons-structure/
6. Lumen Learning & OpenStax. (n.d.-b). Urinary System – Main Organs and their Functions. | BIO103: Human
Biology. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-dutchess-ap1/chapter/urinary-system-main-organs-and-their-
functions/
7. TeachMeAnatomy. (2019, November 14). The Urethra - Male - Female - Anatomical Course.
https://teachmeanatomy.info/pelvis/viscera/urethra/
8. The Bladder (Human Anatomy): Function, Picture, Location, Definition. (2009, July 29). WebMD.
https://www.webmd.com/urinary-incontinence-oab/picture-of-the-bladder
9. The Heart and Kidney Connection. (2021, October 20). National Kidney Foundation.
https://www.kidney.org/atoz/content/heart-and-kidney-connection