PREDECESSOR

S OF THE BIG
THREE
TOPIC : Pre-Socratic Western Philosophy
Origin : Ancient Greece
Period : about 6th century BC
 Main Concerns:
• Trying to establish the single underlying substance the world
is made of without resorting to supernatural or mythological
explanations.

• The " Problem of Change," how things appear to change from

one form to another.
 Thales of Miletus
(c. 624/623 - 548/545 BC)
• First proper philosopher
• Proposed that the whole
Universe was composed of
different forms of water
Anaximanes of Miletus
(c. 586 - c. 526 BC)
• Most of his works were not
preserved; known only
through comments done by
Aristotle and other writers.
• Proposed that the whole
Universe was made of air.
Heraclitus of Ephesus
(c. 535 - c. 475 BC)
• Known as "The Obscure" or
"The Weeping Philosopher"
because of his allegedly
paradoxical philosophies .
• Lauded by his viewpoint that
change is a fundamental
essence in the Universe;
believed in an ongoing process
of perpetual change, a constant
interplay of opposites
• Proposed that the whole
Universe was made of fire
 Anaximander
(c. 610 - c. 546 BC)
• Thales' student - Taught
Anaximanes and Pythagoras
(debatable)
• Known in the historical
documents as the first one to
write down his teachings
• Proposed that the whole
Universe was made from an
unexplainable substance
usually translated as "the
infinite" or "the boundless"
Pythagoras of Samos
(c. 570 - c. 495 BC)
• Led a rather bizarre religious
sect and essentially believed
that all of reality was
governed by Mathematics
• Influenced the philosophies
of Plato and Aristotle
• Basically, his teachings
influenced Western
Philosophy
Parmenides of Elea (Late 6th century - mid 5th century BC)
• Taught Zeno of Elea and Melissus of
Samos
• Considered as the founder of the school of
either Metaphysics or Ontology
• Argued that motion is an illusion
• Influenced Western Philosophy like
Pythagoras did - His poem, On Nature,
was the last surviving evidence of his
existence and it, too, survived through
fragments of the whole poem
• Used a complicated form of reasoning to
deny the concept of change and argued
that everything that exists is permanent,
indestructible, and unchanging
 Zeno of Elea
(c. 490 - c. 430 BC)
• Defended Parmenides' paradoxes
• Focused also on Metaphysics and
Ontology
• Pointed out that the concept of
infinity in divisibility is a
problematical
• Inventor of the dialectic, as Aristotle
said
• Bertrand Russell, another
philosopher centuries later, noted on
the subtlety and sheer profoundness
of Zeno's paradoxes, despite some of
them being disproven by modern
science
 Best known for his Ten Paradoxes,
including the following motion paradoxes:
• Achilles and the Tortoise defined that a slow runner, when given a
proper head start, will always maintain the lead from the fast
pursuer, provided that the pursuer must run towards the point
where the slow runner had been.
• Dichotomy paradox defined how dividing a task in half infinitely
results in no tasks done since the person has to do an infinite
number of tasks before reaching the end.
• Arrow paradox defined that motion occurs when a moving object
changes its position it occupies over time, giving the impression
that the arrow can't move towards existence nor nonexistence if
one (1) of its instance is frozen in time. In other words, if
everything is motionless at every instant in time, and time is made
of infinite instances, then motion is impossible
• Traveling toward existence means that the arrow can't go to its
current position because it's already there.
• Traveling toward nonexistence means that the arrow can't go
to its probable destination because time is also nonexistent for
it to even move.
 Empedocles
(c. 494 - c. 434 BC)
• Proposed that everything is made
up of the four (4) classical
elements which influenced
almost anything for almost 2,000
years
Democritus
• Proposed the theory of the atomos,
which became one of the
foundations for modern-day
Chemistry o The concept of atomos
became the foundation of the
school of Atomism, which stated
that all of reality is actually
composed of tiny, indivisible, and
indestructible building blocks
known as atoms, which form
different combinations and shapes
within the surrounding void.
• Developed the study of Aetiology
• Aetiology is the study of causation
or origination.
 Legacy
• Although these ideas might seem to us rather simplistic and
unconvincing today, we should bear in mind that, at that time,
there was really no scientific knowledge, and even the most
common of phenomena (e.g. lightning, water freezing to ice,
etc.) would have appeared miraculous. Their attempts were,
therefore, important initial steps in the development of
philosophical thought.
Western Philosophy Versus Eastern
Philosophy
 DIFFERENCES
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY
• School of thought based
mainly from Greece
• Basically referred as the
school of thought from
Greek philosophy that
influenced the greater part
of Western civilization
• Stems from Rome and
Christianity, specifically
Judeo-Christianity
EASTERN PHILOSOPHY
• School of thought based
mainly from China
• Based mainly in Asia, more
specifically the Chinese
philosophy
• Stems from Confucianism,
Mahayana Buddhism, and
Taoism
 DIFFERENCES
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY
• Laws Govern the Universe
• Widely believed that there
are laws that govern the
behavior of the universe
EASTERN PHILOSOPHY
• The Universe Exists as is
• The natural world does not
follow laws, it simply “is”
 DIFFERENCES
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY
• Individualistic
• Tries to find the meaning of
life here and now with self
at the center, as it is already
given and part of the divine.
• Based on self-dedication to
be of service to others -
People who are different are
received positively
EASTERN PHILOSOPHY
• Collectivistic
• Drawn into groups or society or
people’s actions and thoughts as
one to find meaning in life, as they
try to get rid of the false “me”
concept and find meaning in
discovering the true “me” in
relation to everything around
them, or as part of a bigger scheme
• Unity is the main principle
• People who are different are
received negatively
 DIFFERENCES
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY
• Linear Journey of Life -
Life is service to God,
money, community, etc.
• Due to its Christian
influence, there must be a
beginning and end to find
meaning
• Life is logical, scientific,
and rational
EASTERN PHILOSOPHY
• Cyclical Journey of Life -
Proposes that life is round, and
the recurrence with everything
around it is important
• Ethics is based on behavior -
Dependence goes from the
inside to the outside
• The inner self must be freed
first in accordance to the world
around to be liberated - Life is
eternal and recurring
 DIFFERENCES
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY
• Linear Journey of Life -
Life is service to God,
money, community, etc.
• Due to its Christian
influence, there must be a
beginning and end to find
meaning
• Life is logical, scientific,
and rational
EASTERN PHILOSOPHY
• Cyclical Journey of Life -
Proposes that life is round, and
the recurrence with everything
around it is important
• Ethics is based on behavior -
Dependence goes from the
inside to the outside
• The inner self must be freed
first in accordance to the world
around to be liberated - Life is
eternal and recurring
 DIFFERENCES
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY EASTERN PHILOSOPHY
• Ethical Emphasis • Virtual Emphasis
• One must do what is • Focuses with the selfless
supposed to be done without approach to life
causing ill to others • Satisfaction with what one has
• Success is based on how
much one walks his path
without hurting others
 DIFFERENCES
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY EASTERN PHILOSOPHY
• Realistic and hand-on • Spiritual and theoretical
 SIMILARITIES
• Study of Reality is Possible
• Both the Western and the Eastern approach share a concept that a deeper
understanding of reality is possible than is normally available in everyday
experience
• Methods differ on how to achieve this o Western philosophy's approach to a
deeper understanding involves the application of symbolic thought such as
words and mathematics -- the nature of reality can be discovered by thinking
about it the right way
• Science relies upon a specific thinking process (logic) while faith relies upon
specific thoughts (dogma) o Eastern philosophy's approach, thinking moves us
away from understanding reality –
• when we think we transfer our attention away from reality to the world of
symbols, an irreversible difference lies between the symbol and what it
represents
• The nature of reality is discovered by experiencing it directly, without thoughts
-- accomplished through a variety of meditative processes
 A Supreme Being Exists
• Both philosophies believe a supreme deity exists who guides the
humankind and provides for all the created beings
• Western philosophy gradually shifts from Creationism into
Science as predictor of all the events occurring in the universe
• Eastern philosophy still puts great emphasis on the existence of
a Supreme Being although the concepts of science are not totally
rejected
Section I: Methods and
Traditional Branches
 I. Traditional Branches of
Philosophy
• A. Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy which deals with
the fundamental questions of reality. Cosmology and ontology
are the two (2) traditional branches of metaphysics.
• 1. Cosmology seeks to understand the origin, evolution,
structure, and ultimate fate of the Universe at large, as well as
the natural laws that keep it in order.
Ex: Physical Cosmology – Big Bang Theory
Religious Cosmology – Creation (Book of Genesis)
• 2. Ontology is the investigation into what types of things there
are in the world and what relations these things bear to one
another. It deals with questions concerning what entities exist
or can be said to exist, and how such entities can be grouped,
related within a hierarchy, and subdivided according to
similarities and differences.
Example: ontological monism, pluralism, idealism,
materialism, dualism, etc.
B. Epistemology is the branch of philosophy which deals with our
concept of knowledge, how we learn, and what we can know. It
addresses four (4) main questions.

1. What is knowledge?
2. How is knowledge acquired?
3. What do people know?
4. How do we know what we know?
• C. Logic is the branch of philosophy which studies the rules of
valid reasoning and argumentation. It is often divided into two
(2) parts: inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning. The
former refers to drawing general conclusions from specific
examples, while the latter is drawing logical conclusions from
definitions and axioms.
• D. Ethics, or moral philosophy, is the branch of philosophy
which is concerned with human values and how individuals
should act. It is concerned with the concept of morality (e.g.,
concepts like good and bad, right and wrong, justice and
crime, virtue and vice, etc.)
• Aesthetics, or esthetics, is the branch of philosophy which deals
with the notion of beauty and the philosophy of art. It deals with the
nature of beauty, art, taste, and the creation and appreciation of
beauty. It is more scientifically defined as the study of sensory or
sensory-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of
sentiment and taste.
• F. Political philosophy, or Politics, is the branch of
philosophy which studies the concepts of liberty, justice,
property, rights, law, and the enforcement of a legal code by
authority: what they are, why (or even if) they are needed,
what makes a government legitimate, what rights and
freedoms it should protect and why, what form it should take
and why, what the law is, and what duties citizens owe to a
legitimate government if any, and when it may be legitimately
overthrown, if ever.
II. Methods of Doing
Philosophy
 A. Truth and Opinion
• 1. Truth is defined as being in accordance with fact and reality,
sometimes considered as a fidelity to an original or standard.
• "If p and q, then p“
• Ex:  "All married people are married“
• Are logical truths because they are true due to their internal
structure and not because of any facts of the world (whereas
"All married people are happy", 
• 2. Opinion is defined as a view or judgment formed by a
person about something, which is not necessarily based on fact
or knowledge.
B. Methods of
Philosophizing
• 1. Logic - Truth is based on reasoning and critical thinking
analysis and construction of arguments. It serves as a path to
freedom from half-truths and deception. Logic, as the study of
reasoning, or the study of the principles and criteria of valid
inference and demonstration, attempts to distinguish good
reasoning from bad reasoning.
• a. Inductive Reasoning - moves from specific premises to a
general conclusion - requires several pieces of evidence to
form a generalized conclusion
• Example: Cathlem was playing Mobile Legends during class
and was reprimanded by the teacher. Dany was also playing
Mobile Legends during class and was reprimanded. Thus, if I
play Mobile Legends during class, I will be reprimanded.
• b. Deductive Reasoning - moves from a general truth to a
more specific conclusion.
• Example: Video games are almost always rooted in fantasy.
Surgeon Simulator is a video game. Therefore, Surgeon
Simulator is rooted in fantasy.
• 2. Existentialism - It is the importance of free individual
choice regardless of the power of the people to influence and
coerce our desires, beliefs, and decisions. For example, there
is a problem that you need to make a decision, but you should
face what would be its early consequences. Another example
is when a person makes a decision about his/her life, follows
through, or does not follow through on that decision and
begins to create his/her essence. It is said in existentialism that
existence comes first, and essence comes second.
 Characteristics
• a. Existence Before Essence - Existentialism gets its name from an
insistence that life is only understandable in terms of an individual’s
existence and his/her particular life experience.
• b. Reason is Unable to Deal with the Depths of Life - There are two
(2) parts to this idea: first, that reason is relatively weak and
imperfect, (people often do not do the “right” thing), and that there
are dark places in life which are “non-reason,” to which reason
scarcely penetrates, (meaning we often commit acts which seem to
defy reason, to make no sense).
• Alienation - Existentialism holds that, since the Renaissance, people
have slowly been separated from concrete earthly existence.
Individuals have been forced to live at ever-higher levels of
abstraction, have been collectivized out of existence, and have driven
God from the heavens (or, what is the same thing to the existentialist),
from the hearts of men. It is believed that individuals live in a
fourfold condition of alienation: from God, nature, other people, and
our own “true” selves.
• “Fear and Trembling“ and Anxiety - The optimism of the
18th and 19th centuries gives way, after the First World War,
to the Great Depression, World War II, and the Holocaust, to a
feeling of pessimism, fear, and anxiety. Another kind of
anxiety that individuals faced in the 20th century when the
philosophy of existentialism developed was “the anguish of
Abraham,” the necessity which is laid upon people to make
“moral” choices on their sense of responsibility.
• The Encounter with Nothingness - According to the
existentialists, for individuals alienated from God, from
nature, from other people, and even from themselves, what is
left at last but Nothingness? Simply put, this is how
existentialists see humanity: on the brink of a catastrophic
precipice, below which yawns the absolute void, black
Nothingness, asking ourselves, “does existence ultimately
have any purpose?”
• f. Freedom - Sooner or later, as a theme that includes all the
others mentioned above, existentialist writings bear upon
freedom. All these ideas either describe some loss of
individuals’ freedom or some threat to it, and all existentialists
of whatever sort are considered to enlarge the range of human
freedom.
• Analytical Philosophy - One of the methods of
philosophizing, it is the conviction that all philosophies have
some significant structure which, when analyzed, provides the
philosopher’s motives. Any of the various philosophical
methodologies holding that clear and precise definition and
argumentation are vital to productive philosophical inquiry.
For example, the definition of a concept can be determined by
uncovering the underlying logical structures, or “logical
forms,” of the sentences used to express it.
 Foundations
• 1. There are no specifically philosophical truths and that the
object of philosophy is the logical clarification of thoughts
• 2. The logical clarification of thoughts can only be achieved
by analysis of the logical form of philosophical propositions,
such as by using the formal grammar and symbolism of a
logical system.
• 3. There is a rejection of sweeping philosophical systems and
grand theories in favor of close attention to detail, as well as a
defense of common sense and ordinary language against the
pretensions of traditional metaphysics and ethics.