First part : Water treatment plant

Introduction to water treatment,

Aeration process,
Coagulation and flocculation process,
Sedimentation process,
Filtration process,
Softening process,
Disinfection process

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 Sedimentation process
Coagulation and flocculation process,

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Introduction to water treatment
Water purification methods are classified into three main categories :
→ Physical methods,

→ Chemical methods,

→ Biological methods,

Fig.1 Typical Water treatment plant (P.A. Vesilind; S.M.Morgan; L.G. Heine; Introduction to environmental engineering , 3 rd edition)
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 Introduction

Objective : Removal of turbidity – Removal of solids

Turbidity :
Water that is not clear but is “dirty,” in the sense that light transmission is inhibited, is known as
turbid water.
Many materials can cause turbidity, including clays and other tiny inorganic particles, algae, and
organic matter.
In the drinking water treatment process, turbidity is of great importance, partly because turbid
water is aesthetically displeasing, and also because the presence of tiny colloidal particles makes
it more difficult to remove or inactivate pathogenic organisms.

Unit operations used to remove solids :

- Plain sedimentation / clarification ;

- Coagulation – Flocculation / sedimentation

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Sedimentation:
It is the process of removing solid particles heavier than water by gravity force.

Particles that will settle within a reasonable period of time can be removed using a
sedimentation tank (also called clarifiers).

It is the oldest and most widely used unit operation in water and wastewater treatments.
The terms sedimentation, settling, and clarification are used interchangeably.
The unit sedimentation basin may also be referred to as a sedimentation tank, clarifier, settling
basin, or settling tank.

In wastewater treatment, sedimentation is used to remove both inorganic and organic

materials which are settleable in continuous-flow conditions. It removes grit, particulate
matter in the primary settling tank, and chemical flocs from a chemical precipitation unit.

Sedimentation is also used for solids concentration in sludge thickeners. Based on the solids
concentration, and the tendency of particle interaction, there are four types of settling which
may occur in wastewater settling operations. The four categories are discrete, flocculent,
hindered (also called zone), and compression settlings. They are also known as types 1, 2, 3,
and 4 sedimentation, respectively.

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In the design of an ideal sedimentation tank, one of the controlling parameters is the settling
velocity ( vs ) of the particle to be removed.

The settling is depending

upon :

liquid particles
characteristics characteristics

Dilute Concentrated Discrete Flocculent

suspension suspension particles particles

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Types of sedimentation

-Type I settling – Discrete particle settling ,

- Type II: Flocculent settling,

- Type III: Hindered or zone settling,

- Type IV: Compression settling.

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Sedimentation tanks are either rectangular or circular tanks.

Circular Basin Rectangular Basin

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Long Rectangular Settling Basin
Long rectangular basins are hydraulically more stable, and flow control for large volumes is easier with this configuration.
A typical long rectangular tank have length ranging from 2 to 4 times their width.
The bottom is slightly sloped to facilitate sludge scraping.
A slow moving mechanical sludge scraper continuously pulls the settled material into a sludge hopper from where it is
pumped out periodically.

A long rectangular settling tank can be divided into

four different functional zones:
Inlet zone: Region in which the flow is uniformly
distributed over the cross section such that the
flow through settling zone follows horizontal path.

Settling zone: Settling occurs under quiescent

conditions.

Outlet zone: Clarified effluent is collected and

discharge through outlet weir.

Sludge zone: For collection of sludge below settling

zone.

Inlet and Outlet Arrangement

Inlet devices: Inlets shall be designed to distribute the water equally and at uniform velocities. A baffle should be
constructed across the basin close to the inlet and should project several feet below the water surface to dissipate inlet
velocities and provide uniform flow;

Outlet Devices: Outlet weirs or submerged orifices shall be designed to maintain velocities suitable for settling in the basin
and to minimize short-circuiting. Weirs shall be adjustable, and at least equivalent in length to the perimeter of the tank.
Circular Basins

Circular settling  basins have  the same functional zones as the long rectangular basin, but the flow regime
is different. When the flow enters at the center and is baffled to flow radially towards the perimeter, the
horizontal velocity of the water is continuously decreasing as the distance from the center increases. Thus,
the particle path in a circular basin is a parabola as opposed to the straight line path in the long rectangular
tank.
Sludge  removal mechanisms in  circular  tanks are  simpler and require less maintenance.
Type I settling – Discrete particle settling
When particles settle discretely, the particle settling velocity can be
calculated, and the basin can be designed to remove a specific size
particle. In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton showed that a particle falling in a
quiescent fluid accelerates until the frictional resistance, or drag, on
the particle is equal to the gravitational force of the particle
( show - Figure ) (Newton, 1687). The three forces are defined as
follows:

The driving force for acceleration of the particle is the difference between the gravitational and
buoyant forces:

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When the drag force is equal to the driving force, the particle velocity reaches a constant value
called the terminal settling velocity ( vs ).

For spherical particles with a diameter d,

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The plain sedimentation of a discrete spherical particle, described by Newton’s law, can be
applied to grit removal in grit chambers and sedimentation tanks. The terminal settling velocity
is determined as:

The drag coefficient takes on different values depending on the flow regime surrounding the
particle. The drag coefficient is not constant. It varies with the Reynolds number and the shape
of the particle.
The flow regime may be characterized qualitatively as laminar, turbulent, or transitional.

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In a plain sedimentation :
→ At laminar flow, settling velocity equation (for spherical discrete particle) is simplified
to Stocks law:

Dynamic viscosity (also called absolute viscosity ) is a

function of the water temperature.

A. Stokes’ law is valid for spherical particles

and laminar flow (Reynolds numbers ˂1).

→ At turbulent flow, settling velocity equation (for spherical discrete particle):

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Batch settling column for type I settling
Conditions for type I settling
A
- All particles with d>= do , such that v >= vo , will
arrive at/ or / pass the sampling port in time to .

- A particle with dp < do will have a terminal

B
settling velocity vp < vo and will arrive at /or/ pass
the sampling port in time to , with original
position at/or / below a point Zp .

- If the suspension is mixed uniformly then the

fraction of particles of size dp with settling
velocity vp which will arrive at /or/ pass the
Vo = distance travelled/time of travel sampling port in time t0 will be Zp / Z0 = vp / vo
= Zo /to
- Thus, the removal efficiency of any size particle
from suspension is the ratio of the settling
velocity of that particle to the settling velocity v0
Vp = Zp /to
defined by Z0 / t0 .

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Efficiency for type I - settling : fraction removal by settling

Partial removal
Total removal
remaining

Total removal: fraction of particles with v_s>= v_c (critique v_0 or v_c)
X_0: fraction remainig

Partial removal: fraction of particles with v_s < v_c

(critique) and they will be removed (position)

𝐻
𝑣𝑠1= ; 𝐻 ( 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡h ) ; 𝑡 (𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 1)
𝑡

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Example :
A settling analysis / type -1- settling ,
Critical velocity (m/day)
Port column = 1.8 m =Z_0=H
Theoretical removal efficiency for an overflowrate of 432 m3/ m2/ day = 432/(24*60)=0.3 m/m

Time (min) TSS(conc mg/L)

Totalsuspended solid
0 200
V_s (m/min) (fraction reaming )
3 116 Settling velocity = TSS/C_0
5 98 - -
10 75 H/3=1.8/3=0.6 116/200=0.58
20 35 1.8/5=0.36 98/200=0.49
40 10 1.8/10=0.18 75/200=0.38
60 2 1.8/20=0.09 35/200=0.18

1.8/40=0.045 10/200=0.05
1.8/60=0.03 2/200=0.01

Critical velocity (m/day) from the graph we get the critical amount
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 Total removal=1-0.46=0.54

partial removal

dx V_i Dx*v_i
0.06 0.235 0.0141
0.1 0.165 0.0165
0.1 0.126 0.0126
0.1 0.078 0.0078

0.1 0.045 0.0045

To increase the efficiency we can increase the surface area

(horizontal) of the tank to keep the particles more time
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Type II settling – Flocculent settling
Settling of flocculent particles in dilute suspension
- Difficult to model the process due to continuously changing size and shape

-The greater the tank depth, the greater is the opportunity for contact among particles [thus
analyze through the column length]

- No satisfactory formulation available for predicting flocculation effect on sedimentation

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Floculation – Coagulation

Al2(SO4)3 Fe2(SO4)3

Add Alum,
Stirr for 30 sec,
Wait
% removal of completely removed fraction and % removal of partially removed fraction
(same conditions)
% partially removed = ( average depth reached by fraction / total depth ) * fraction

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height: can be of any diameter but should be equal in height to Settling column analysis
the depth of the proposed tank (150 mm dia., 2-4 m height or for type II settling
at least depth of the proposed settling tank)
-dia.: at least 130 to 200 mm to minimize side-wall effects

Procedure :
- uniform distribution of the particles initially throughout the
height of the column > ports at equal intervals (0.5 m intervals)
- samples removed through the ports at periodic time intervals
and ss concentrations are determined
==> obtain % removal xij = (1-Cij/Co)*100 : % removed at ith
depth at the jth time interval
--- plot % removal vs. settling time + interpolation made
==> isoremoval lines are drawn

obtain removal efficiency for assumed detention times => %

removal vs. detention time
Cij : concentration of particles left in the
column at the port i and the time j

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 Type II
C_0

Cij

0.5

1
1.5

2
 (
𝑿 𝒊𝒋 = 𝟏 −
𝑪𝒊𝒋
𝑪𝟎
×𝟏𝟎𝟎
)
Depth Time of sampling (min) axis xx
Axix yy
(m) 30 60 90 120 150 180

0.5 47 67 80 85 88 91

1.0 28 50 63 74 78 83

1.5 19 40 53 63 72 77

2.0 15 33 46 56 64 72

2.5 12 28 42 51 59 68

3.0 10 25 38 47 55 62 27
Depth Time of sampling (min)
(m) 30 60 90 120 150 180
0.5 47 67 80 85 88 91
1.0 28 50 63 74 78 83
1.5 19 40 53 63 72 77
2.0 15 33 46 56 64 72
2.5 12 28 42 51 59 68
3.0 10 25 38 47 55 62

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 detention time = 1h 45 min = 105 min
% of complete removed fraction = 43%
% of partial removed fraction = ( average depth reached by fraction / total depth ) * fraction
43%-50%: 7%  are removed
105 min
partial removal

Total removal
50%-60%: 10%  are removed 70%-80%: are removed
80%-90%: are removed
60%-70%: 10%  are removed
90%-100%: are removed

% of total partial removed fraction= 6.06+6+4+ ….+ 0.5=20.72%

% of total removed fraction= 43+20.72=63.72 %

To increase the % of total removed  increase the depth or increase the detention time

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SEDIMENTATION BASIN DESIGN

Design criteria – General criteria

Types of sedimentation:
1- Plain sedimentation: no chemical is used
2- Chemical sedimentation: chemical is used to enhance the efficiency

The sedimentation can be of two types :

- Discrete fill type ;

- Continuous fill type.

The continuous fill type can be of two types :

- Vertical tank
- Horizontal tank

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Long Rectangular Settling Basin
Long rectangular basins are hydraulically more stable, and flow control for large volumes is easier with this configuration.
A typical long rectangular tank have length ranging from 2 to 4 times their width.
The bottom is slightly sloped to facilitate sludge scraping.
A slow moving mechanical sludge scraper continuously pulls the settled material into a sludge hopper from where it is
pumped out periodically.

A long rectangular settling tank can be divided into

four different functional zones:
Inlet zone: Region in which the flow is uniformly
distributed over the cross section such that the
flow through settling zone follows horizontal path.

Settling zone: Settling occurs under quiescent

conditions.

Outlet zone: Clarified effluent is collected and

discharge through outlet weir.

Sludge zone: For collection of sludge below settling

zone.

Inlet and Outlet Arrangement

Inlet devices: Inlets shall be designed to distribute the water equally and at uniform velocities. A baffle should be
constructed across the basin close to the inlet and should project several feet below the water surface to dissipate inlet
velocities and provide uniform flow;

Outlet Devices: Outlet weirs or submerged orifices shall be designed to maintain velocities suitable for settling in the basin
and to minimize short-circuiting. Weirs shall be adjustable, and at least equivalent in length to the perimeter of the tank.
Circular Basins

Circular settling  basins have  the same functional zones as the long rectangular basin, but the flow regime
is different. When the flow enters at the center and is baffled to flow radially towards the perimeter, the
horizontal velocity of the water is continuously decreasing as the distance from the center increases. Thus,
the particle path in a circular basin is a parabola as opposed to the straight line path in the long rectangular
tank.
Sludge  removal mechanisms in  circular  tanks are  simpler and require less maintenance.
Sedimentation – General concepts for sizing settling bassins :
- Detention time = t
- Settling velocity = Vs
- Overflowrate = Vc (critical)
- weir loading rate .

- If Vs ˃ Vc : particles will completely settle;

- If Vs ˂ Vc : particles do not settle unless the particles are at “ h” level when entering the
sedimentation tank when h = Vs x t
- To get the effective of sedimentation tank : Vs ˃˃˃ Vc → this can be achieved by increasing
the area of the tank .

Detention time (residence time) : time that (waste)water spends in a particular part of the
plant.
For any tank, detention time is calculated as follows :

Detention time, expressed in hours, is

calculated by dividing the basin volume by
average daily flow
Sedimentation – General concepts for sizing settling bassins :

Overflow rate

V0 = Q / A = flow rate (m3/s ) / settling surface area (m2)

The continuous fill type can be of two types :

- Vertical tank
- Horizontal tank

Vertical flow tank – design criteria

- Total removal ;
- No Partial removal.

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Horizontal flow tank - Type I settling – design criteria
- Total removal ;
- Partial removal.

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Examples
Example 1 :
A town has an existing horizontal flow sedimentation tank with an overflowrate of 17 m 3/d/m2;
- Remove particles with settling velocity of 0.1 mm / sec.
- Assume that we have ideal sedimentation tank ----- type I;
- Calculate the percentage of particles removal ?

The critical velocity=17 m/d=0.1969 mm/s

V_s=0.1 mm/s < V_c  partial removal

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Examples
Example 2 :
Water treatment plant : flowrate = 432 m3/hours;
Need to remove 90 % of the particles having a settling velocity of 0.12 cm/sec ;
What will be the required plan area ?

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Example 3 :
Water treatment plant : SOR = 0.35 mm/sec;
The analysis of this water found that there are 6 different particle sizes:
0.1 mm with settling velocity of 0.2 mm/sec; and percentage of particles = 10 %;
0.2 mm with settling velocity of 0.25 mm/sec; and percentage of particles = 20 %;
0.3 mm with settling velocity of 0.3 mm/sec; and percentage of particles = 15 %;
0.4 mm with settling velocity of 0.35 mm/sec; and percentage of particles = 5 %;
0.5 mm with settling velocity of 0.4 mm/sec; and percentage of particles = 30 %;
0.6 mm with settling velocity of 0.5 mm/sec; and percentage of particles = 20 %;
Calculate the efficiency of this tank ?

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=0.55+1/0.35
(0.2*10/100+0.25*20/100+0.3*15)=87.6%

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Type II Settling

Mixing _ flocculation

• In water treatment, rapid mixing provides dispersion of chemicals coagulants so dissolution

occurs in 10 to 30 sec.

• Detention time for floc formation should be at least 30 min.

For thorough mixing, the design parameters are :

- Mixing time (t)
- velocity gradient (G)
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Example :
Water treatment plant is required to process 28800 m3/d of raw water
( μ = dynamic viscosity = 10-3 N.s/m2)
What is the power input required for rapid mixing having a velocity gradient of 900 s -1 to blend
35 mg/l of Alum; with the flow for a duration time of 2 min.

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