HUMAN INFORMATION PROCESSING

HUMAN INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL

states that the minds machinery includes attention mechanisms for bringing information in, working memory for actively manipulating information, and long term memory for passively holding information so that it can be used in the future it addresses how as children grow, their brains likewise mature, leading to advances in their ability to process & respond to the information they receive through their senses

HUMAN INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL

MEMORY
Three Basic Components:

Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory

SENSORY MEMORY

Each sensory system has a corresponding sensory memory which is also termed a sensory register or sensory store. Each sensory memory briefly stores and transforms the stimuli it receives into a form that can be processed by short-term memory.

SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM)

receives, holds, and processes information from the sensory registers processing in STM is necessary before information can be transferred and retained in long-term memory it also retrieves information from long-term memory when needed

LONG-TERM MEMORY (LTM)

receives information from short-term memory and stores it indefinitely LTM capacity is considered unlimited for practical purposes LTM holds all of the learning and memories of our life experience it is essentially our life "database the retrieval and processing of long-term memories by STM enables us to function in the world

Three Basic Components of Memory

MEMORY
Three basic processes: Encoding Maintenance Retrieval

ENCODING

sensory stimuli enter sensory memory where "attended to" information is encoded into a form that can be processed by short-term memory information that is not attended to, decays or is "overwritten" by new incoming stimuli

MAINTENANCE

short-term memory has limited storage capacity, as the name implies information entering short-term memory "decays" after about 12 to 30 seconds unless it is "rehearsed" or otherwise consciously attended to and encoded for transfer into long-term memory

RETRIEVAL

information that is stored in long-term memory is retrieved by short-term memory to support recall and recognition some theorists believe that long-term memory decays overtime, while others believe that memories are still encoded but the retrieval mechanisms for them have been lost

Three Basic Components of Memory with Three Basic Processes

PERCEPTION & SENSORY PROCESSING

Perception the comparison of incoming stimulus information with stored knowledge to categorize the information

Perception a process by w/c people translate sensory impressions into a coherent and unified view of the world around them

PERCEPTION & SENSORY PROCESSING

Sensation - refers to the immediate, relatively unprocessed result of stimulation of sensory receptors in the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, or skin

PERCEPTION & SENSORY PROCESSING

Example of Perception

RESOURCES

Attentional Resources Available Vary with Demand

ATTENTION

determines what information is transmitted to working memory

the amount of stimuli that can be taken in by our sensory systems is considered to be unlimited

however, the amount of information that can be held in working memory is limited to 7 2 items

ATTENTION
Attention is influenced by: Expectancy - we direct our sensory receptors -- eyes, ears, nose, fingertips -- to where we anticipate locating information within our environment (surprise occurs when events differ from our expectation)

Relevance we seek information/stimuli relevant to our immediate tasks and our goals

ATTENTION

ATTENTION METAPHORS

Visual Attention Auditory Attention

VISUAL ATTENTION

picks-out elements within our environment to direct our visual system

use a "spotlight" or "flashlight" metaphor to explain visual attention

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the concept of adding a "lens" to the spotlight or flashlight was latter proposed to emphasize our ability to "focus" on an object or selected element for concentrated scrutiny and processing

AUDITORY ATTENTION

has been conceptualized as a "filter" on sounds that selects the stimuli that we "hear" and blocks the remainder (Broadbent, 1958)

as more like a "volume" adjustment on a radio

volume is turned down on unattended auditory stimuli; conversely, the brain can turn up the volume selectively when needed the "Cocktail Party" effect (Treisman, 1960) - the term used for the phenomena of being in a crowd listening to a conversation and, yet, hearing one's name mentioned across the room

ATTENTION CONTROL
Our focus of attention results from whether a stimulus activates: Top-Down (internal) Process Bottom-Up (external) Process

TOP-DOWN PROCESS
attention control is under conscious direction, using information residing in memory stores it is also termed concept driven or effortful attention purposefully directed & is influenced by expectancy and relevance, as well as prior knowledge and experience slower than bottom-up attention

Examples: search task such as when looking for the face of a friend in a crowd, seeking a specific item on a control display, or concentrating on performing a task

BOTTOM-UP PROCESS

attention is captured by external stimuli, usually unexpected events

also termed data driven or automatic attention very rapid, reaching its maximum 100 - 200 milliseconds after stimulus perception

Examples: a bright flash of light, a loud sound, loss of balance due to slippery conditions, or impact by an object

Top-Down Processing Maintainer concentrating on task performance and directing his attention to parts inspection.

Bottom-Up Processing Smoke & Fire alarms, police and fire engine sirens--all capture our attention.

ATTENTION & DESIGN

Understanding how attention works is important in human factors design. Some pertinent conceptual questions are:


How well can the user concentrate and screen out conflicting messages?

How much information can the user attend to at one time?

How does attending to one input affect the user's ability to deal with another input?

ATTENTION & DESIGN

A human-to-system interface should be designed to focus the user's attention on information important to task performance while reducing distractions and attention-competing information sources. Attention attracting design techniques, such as color, brightness, loudness, or central location, should be used to make information specific to the task standout from competing information.


Such designs should also consider the need to facilitate attention re-direction when this is required for task performance.

ATTENTION & DESIGN

Example: A pilot's need to view out the window and also to attend to instrument readings. Solution: The "heads-up display."

DIVIDED ATTENTION

the ability to perform more than one task at a time the ability to perform these tasks successfully depends in part on the nature of the tasks and whether or not they use the same or different cognitive processes


 

if the tasks draw upon different processes there is a higher likelihood that the tasks can be successfully performed concurrently if the tasks require use of the same cognitive processes, it is less likely the tasks will be performed within acceptable time and accuracy parameters the more similar the tasks, the more difficult it will be to perform them simultaneous the more difficult the tasks, the harder it will be to perform then simultaneously, although this may be somewhat ameliorated by practice

SUSTAINED ATTENTION

requires concentrating on one primary task for a long period of time while remaining alert to changes with the increased use of automated systems, many jobs have changed from "active doing" to monitoring or "supervising" systems
unfortunately, humans are notoriously poor at these types of tasks y it has been consistently found that human performance quickly deteriorates over time such that "vigilance decrement" is a common term in research
y