PSOC

Paavai Institutions Department of EEE
EE6603-POWER SYSTEM
OPERATION AND
CONTROL
UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION
UNIT-I 1. 1
CONTENTS
TECHNICAL TERMS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. SYSTEM LOAD VARIATION
1.1.1. System load characteristics
1.1.1.1. Connected Load
1.1.1.2. Maximum Demand
1.1.1.3. Demand Factor
1.1.1.4. Average Load
1.1.1.5. Load Factor
1.1.1.6. Diversity Factor
1.1.1.7. Plant Capacity Factor
1.1.1.8. Plant Use Factor
1.1.2. Load curves
1.1.3. Load-duration curve
1.1.4..load factor
1.1.5. Diversity factor
1.2. RESERVE REQUIREMENTS
1.2.1. Installed reserves
1.2.2. Spinning reserves
1.2.3. Cold reserves
1.2.4. Hot reserves
1.3. OVERVIEW OF SYSTEM OPERATION
1.3.1. Load forecasting
1.3.2. Unit commitment
1.3.3. Load dispatching
1.4. OVERVIEW OF SYSTEM CONTROL
1.4.1. Governor Control
1.4.2. Load frequency control
1.4.3. Economic dispatch control
UNIT-I 1. 2
1.4.4. Automatic voltage regulator

1.4.5. System voltage control
1.4.6. Security control
QUESTION BANK
UNIT-I 1. 3
TECHNICAL TERMS
Load curve: The curve drawn between the variations of load on the power station with
Reference to time
Daily load curve: The curve drawn between the variations of load with reference to various
time period of day
Monthly load curve: The obtained from daily load curve.
Yearly load curve: The obtained from monthly load curve which is used to find annual load
factor.
Connected load: The sum of continuous ratings of all the equipments connected to supply
systems.
Maximum demand: The greatest demand of load on the power station during a given period.
Demand factor: The ratio of maximum demand to connected load.
Average demand: The average of loads occurring on the power station in a given period
(day or month or year).
Load factor: The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period.
Diversity factor: The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demand on power station.
Capacity factor: The ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy that
could have been produced during a given period.
Plant use factor: The ratio of units generated to the product of plant capacity and the number
of hours for which the plant was in operation.
Load duration curve: When the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of
descending magnitudes the curve then
Load management: As generator capacity has increased in price (to as much as $1000 per
kilowatt) and as the fuel shortages put an extra squeeze on them, many electric utilities are
finding it worthwhile to try to „slave‟ the load peaks. This is referred to as load management.
Function of AVR: The basic role of the AVR is to provide constancy of the generator
terminal voltage during normal, small and slow changes in the load.
Optimal dispatch: Optimal dispatch is the state that the power system is in prior to any
contingency
UNIT-I 1. 4
1. INTRODUCTION:
Power system operations have the responsibility to ensure that adequate power is
delivered to the load reliably and economically, in order to ensure adequate delivery
of power
demand. The electric energy system can be operated at the desired operating level by
maintaining frequency, voltage and security. The real and reactive power generated is
controlled automatically.
Power stations:
1. Steam plant
2. Hydro power plant
3. Nuclear power plant
4. Diesel power plant
Objectives of a power system Operation

Operational objectives of a power system have been to provide a continuous quality
service with minimum cost to the user. These objectives are:
 First Objective: Supplying the energy user with quality service, i.e., at acceptable
voltage and frequency
 Second Objective: Meeting the first objective with acceptable impact upon the
environment.
 Third Objective: Meeting the first and second objectives continuously, i.e., with
adequate security and reliability.
 Fourth Objective: Meeting the first, second, and third objectives with optimum
economy, i.e., minimum cost to the energy user.
The term “continuous service” can be translated to mean “secure and reliable
service”
1.1. SYSTEM LOAD VARIATION

The variation of load on the power station with respect to time.
SYSTEM LOAD
• From system‟s point of view, there are 5 broad category of loads:
1. Domestic
2. Commercial
3. Industrial
UNIT-I 1. 5
4. Agriculture
5. Others - street lights, traction.
Domestic:
Lights, fans, domestic appliances like heaters, refrigerators, air conditioners,
mixers, ovens, small motors etc.
Demand factor = 0.7 to 1.0; Diversity factor = 1.2 to 1.3; Load factor = 0.1 to
0.15
Commercial:
Lightings for shops, advertising hoardings, fans, AC etc.
Demand factor = 0.9 to 1.0; Diversity factor = 1.1 to 1.2; Load factor = 0.25 to
0.3
Industrial:
Small scale industries: 0-
20kW
Medium scale industries: 20-
100kW
Large scale industries: above
100kW
Industrial loads need power over a longer period which remains fairly uniform
throughout the day
For heavy industries:
Demand factor = 0.85 to 0.9; Load factor = 0.7 to 0.8
Agriculture:
Supplying water for irrigation using pumps driven by motors
Demand factor = 0.9 to 1; Diversity factor = 1.0 to 1.5; Load factor = 0.15 to
0.25
Other Loads:
Bulk supplies, street lights, traction, government loads which have their own
peculiar characteristics
1.1.1. System load characteristics
 Connected load
 Maximum demand
 Average load
 Load factor

Diversity factor
 Plant capacity factor
UNIT-I 1. 6
 Plant use factor
1.1.1.1. Connected
Load:
1.1.1.2. Maximum Demand:

It is the greatest demand of load on the power station during a given period
1.1.1.3. Demand Factor:
It is the ratio of maximum demand on the power station to its connected load.
Maximum demand
Demand factor =
connected load
1.1.1.4. Average Load:

The average of loads Occurring on the power station in a given period(day or month or year)
� � � � � � � � � ��
Daily Average Load =
24 ��
��
Weekly load =
��
��
��
� � � � � � � � � ��
Yearly Load =
�� 8760�
��
1.1.1.5. Load Factor:
The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period
Average load
Maximum demand
Load Factor=
If the plant is in operation for T hours
��
Load Factor=
� ��𝑇
�� 𝑇
1.1.1.6. Diversity Factor:

The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands to the maximum demand on power
station.
Diversity factor= ��

��
�
� � ��
��
1.1.1.7. Plant Capacity Factor:
It is the ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy that could have been
produced during a given period.
�� 𝑃� � ��
Plant Capacity Factor=
��
��
1.1.1.8. Plant Use Factor:
It is the ratio of kWh generated to the product of plant capacity and the number of hours for
which the plant was in operation.
Plant use factor  Station output in kWh

Plant capacity  Hoursof use
When the elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending magnitudes.
1.1.2. Load curves
The curve showing the variation of load on the power station with respect to time
UNIT-I 1. 7
Figure.1.1 Load curves

Types of Load Curve:
Daily load curve–Load variations during the whole day
Monthly load curve–Load curve obtained from the daily load curve
Yearly load curve-Load curve obtained from the monthly load curve
Base Load:
The unvarying load which occurs almost the whole day on the
station
Peak Load:
The various peak demands so load of the station
Figure.1.2. Daily load curve

1.1.3. Load duration curve:
When the elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending magnitudes.
UNIT-I 1. 8
Figure.1.3. Load Duration Curve
The load duration curve gives the data in a more presentable form
 The area under the load duration curve is equal to that of the corresponding load curve
 The load duration curve can be extended to include any period of time
1.1.4. Load factor
The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period is known as
load factor.
Load factor = (average load)/ (maximum demand)
1.1.5. Diversity factor
The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demand on power station is known as
diversity factor.
Diversity factor = (sum of individual maximum demand)/(maximum
demand).
1.2. RESERVE REQUIREMENTS

1.2.1 Installed reserve
Installed reserve is that generating capacity which is connected to the bus and is ready to take
load.
1.2.2 Spinning reserve
The spinning reserve is the extra generating capacity that is available by increasing
the power output of generators that are already connected to the power system. For
most
generators, this increase in power output is achieved by increasing the torque a
pplied to the
turbine's rotor
UNIT-I 1. 9
1.2.3. Cold reserve:

Cold reserve is that generating capacity which is available for service but is not in
operation.
1.5.4. Hot reserve:
Hot reserve is that generating capacity which is available for operation but is not in
service.
1.3. OVER VIEW OF SYSTEM OPERATION

1.3.1 Load Forecasting
The load on their
system should be
estimated in advance.
The estimation in
advance is known
as load forecasting.
Load forecasting based
on the previous
experience without any
historical
data.
 Very short time: Minutes to ½ hour
 Short time: ½ to few hours
 Medium term: Few days to few weeks
 Long time: Few months to few years
Need for Load Forecasting
 Very short time: generation & distribution
1.3.2.
 Unit
ShortCommitment:
time: maintaining the spinning reserve
 A short term load forecast
 Medium term: Predicted monsoon acting & hydro availability & allocating Spinning
 System reserve requirements
reserve.
 System security
 Long time: Maintenance schedule for generating units, planning for future
 Startup costs for all units
 Minimum level fuel cost
 Incremental fuel cost
 Maintenance cost
UNIT-I 1. 10
1.3.3. Load dispatching:

Thermal scheduling:
Loading of steam units are allocated to serve the objective of minimum fuel cost.
Hydro thermal scheduling:
1. Loading of hydro and thermal units are allocated to serve the objective of minimum fuel
cost.
2. Scheduling of hydro units are complex because of natural differences in the water sheds,
manmade storage.
3. During rainy season, we can utilize hydro generation to a maximum & the remaining
period its depends on water availability.
4. If availability of water is not enough to generate power, we must utilize only thermal
power generation.
Types:
1. Long range hydro –scheduling
2. Short range hydro scheduling
1.7. OVERVIEW OF POWER SYSTEM CONTROL:
 Speed regulation of the governor
 Controls the boiler pressure, temperature & flows
 Speed regulation concerned with steam input to turbine
 Load is inversely proportional to speed
 Governor senses the speed & gives command signal
 Steam input changed relative to the load requirement.
1.4.1. Governor Control
Governor is A device used to control the speed of a prime mover. A governor protects
the prime mover from overspeed and keeps the prime mover speed at or near the
desired
revolutions per minute. When a prime mover drives an alternator supplying
electrical power
at a given frequency, a governor must be used to hold the prime mover at a speed that
will
yield this frequency. An unloaded diesel engine will fly to pieces unless it is under
governor
control.
1.4.2. Load frequency control
1. Sense the bus bar frequency & compare with the tie line power frequency
2. Difference fed to the integrator & to speed changer
UNIT-I 1. 11
3. Tie line frequency maintained constant
1.4.3. Economic dispatch control

1. When load distribution between a number of generator units considered optimum
schedule affected when increase at one replaces a decreases at other.
2. Optimum use of generators at each station at various load is known as economic
dispatch
control.
1.4.4. Automatic voltage regulator
1. Regulate generator voltage and output power
2. Terminal voltage & reactive power is also met
1.4.5. System voltage control
Controlling the voltage within the tolerable limits. Devices used are
1. Static VAR compensator
2. Synchronous condenser
3. Tap changing transformer
4. Switches
5. Capacitor
6. Reactor
1.4.6. Security control
1. Monitoring & decision
2. Control
Monitoring & decision:
1. Condition of the system continuously observed in the control centers by relays.
2. If any continuous severe problem occurs system is in abnormal condition.
Control:
1. Proper commands are generated for correcting the abnormality in protecting the system.
2. If no abnormality is observed, then the normal operation proceeds for next interval.
3. Central controls are used to monitor the interconnected areas
4. Inter connected areas can be tolerate larger load changes with smaller frequency
deviations
5. Central control centre monitors information about frequency, generating unit outputs
and
tie line power flows to interconnected areas.
6. This information is used by automation load frequency control in order to maintain
area
frequency at its scheduled value.
UNIT-I 1. 12
Frequency tie flows generator power
System generator control
Load frequency control,
Economic dispatch schedule
System voltage control

Prime
mover and
control
Excitation
system and Field current
control
Generator Other generating units

Voltage and associated controls
Electrical Power
Speed/power
Transmission controls, reactive power and voltage

controls, HVDC, Transmission & Associated cnotrols
Frequency tie flows generator power
Figure.1.4. Overview of system operation and control
UNIT-I 1. 13
PROBLEMS
1. A power supply is having the following loads:
Type of load Maximum Diversity factor of Demand factor
demand(kw) group
Domestic 10,000 1.2 0.8
Commercial 30,000 1.3 0.9
Industrial 50,000 1.35 0.95
If the overall system diversity factor is 1.5, determine (a) the maximum demand, (b)
connected load of each type.
Solution:
(a)Total maximum demand of loads=10000+30000+50000=90000 kw
System diversity factor=1.5
Maximumdemand=Total demand/system diversity factor
=90000/1.5=60000 kw
(b)Connected load of each type
Domestic load:
Diversity factor of domestic load=Maximum domestic demand/maximum domestic load
demand
=12000/0.8=15000 kw
(c)Commercial load:
Connected commercial demand=Maximum demand/demand factor for commercial load
=39000/0.9=43333.33 kw
(d)Industrial load:
Connected industrial load=Maximum demand/demand factor of industrial load
=67500/0.95=71052.63 kw
2. A generating station has a maximum demand of 400 MW.The annual load factor is
60% and capacity factor is 50%.Find the reserve capacity of the plant.
Solution:
Energy generated per annum=Maximum demand*load factor*hours in a year
=400*0.
6*8760
=2102.4*103
MWhr
Plant capacity =Unit generated per annum/capacity factor hours in a year

=2102.4*103/0.5
UNIT-I 1. 14
QUESTION BANK
PART A
1. What is the objective of power system operation and
control?
2.
What is load curve and load duration curve?
3.
Define load factor & diversity factor.
4.
Define spinning reserve, Cold reserve & hot reserve.
5.
6. Define Maximum Demand & demand factor.
State the purpose of system generation control.
7.
8. State the differences between P-f and Q-|V| controls.
9. What is meant by load frequency control?
What is daily, Weekly, Annual load curve?
10. Define load and list out the types of loads.
11. What is Average demand?
12. What is Capacity factor?
PART-B
1. A generating station has the following daily load cycle:
Time 0-6 6-10 10-12 12-16 16-20 20-24

(hours)
Load(M 20 25 30 25 35 20
Draw the Load curve and load duration curve and find
Maximum demand, Units generated per day, Average Load&Load Factor.
2. Explain the following:
(i) Load forecasting,
(ii) Economic dispatch control (EDC)
3. A Power station has to meet the following demand.
Group A: 200kW between 8 A.M and 6 P.M
Group B: 100kW between 6 A.M and 10 A.M
Group C: 50kW between 6 A.M and 10 A.M
Group D: 100kW between 10 A.M and 6 P.M and 6 P.M and 6 A.M
Plot the daily load cure and load duration curve and determine
(i) Diversity factor,(ii) Units generated per day,(iii) Load factor.
4. Discuss about the recent trends in real time overview of system operation & control of power
system.
UNIT-I 1. 15
5. Briefly discuss the classification of loads and list out the important Characteristics of various
types of loads.
6. Explain the need for voltage and frequency regulation in power system.
7. Explain the system voltage control and security control.
UNIT-I 1. 16
UNIT –II
SYSTEM OPERATION
UNIT-II 2. 1
CONTENTS
TECHNICAL TERMS
2. INTRODUCTION
2.1. SYSTEM LOAD FORECASTING

2.1.1. Important Factors for Forecasts
2.1.2. Forecasting Methods
2.1.3. Medium- and long-term load forecasting methods
2.2. ECONOMIC DISPATCH
2.2.1. Economic operation of power systems
2.2.2. Performance curves
2.2.3. Solution Methods
2.2.4. Economic dispatch problem
2.2.5. Thermal system dispatching with network losses considered
2.2.6. lambda-iteration method
2.2.7. Base point and participation factors
2.2.8. Economic dispatch controller added to LFC:
2.3. UNIT COMMITMENT
2.3.1. Constraints in Unit Commitment
2.3.2. Spinning Reserve
2.3.3. Thermal Unit Constraints
2.3.4 Other Constraints
2.3.4.1 Hydro-Constraints
2.3.4.2 Must Run
2.3.4.3 Fuel Constraints
2.3.5. Unit commitment solution methods
2.3.5.1. Priority-List Methods
2.3.5.2. Dynamic-Programming Solution
2.3.5.3. Forward DP Approach
2.3.4. Lagrange Relaxation Solution
UNIT-II 2. 2
TECHNICAL TERMS
Btu (British thermal unit): A standard unit for measuring the quantity of heat energy
equal to the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water by 1
degree Fahrenheit.
Capacity: The amount of electric power delivered or required for which a generator,
turbine, transformer, transmission circuit, station, or system is rated by the
manufacturer.
Combined Cycle Unit:
An electric generating unit that consists of one or more combustion turbines and one
or more boilers with a portion of the required energy input to the boiler(s) provided by
the exhaust gas of the combustion turbine(s).
Demand: The rate at which energy is delivered to loads and scheduling points by
generation, transmission, and distribution facilities.
Demand (Electric): The rate at which electric energy is delivered to or by a system,
part of a system, or piece of equipment, at a given instant or averaged over any
designated period of time.
Demand-Side Management: The planning, implementation, and monitoring of
utility activities designed to encourage consumers to modify patterns of electricity
usage, including the timing and level of electricity demand. It refers only to energy
and load-shape modifying activities that are undertaken in response to utility-
administered programs. It does not refer to energy and load-shape changes arising
from the normal operation of the marketplace or from government-mandated energy-
efficiency standards. Demand-Side Management (DSM) covers the complete range of
load-shape objectives, including strategic conservation and load management, as well
as strategic load growth.
Deregulation: The elimination of regulation from a previously regulated industry or
sector of an industry.
Electric Service Provider: An entity that provides electric service to a retail or end-
use customer.
Energy: The capacity for doing work as measured by the capability of doing work
(potential energy) or the conversion of this capability to motion (kinetic energy).
Energy has several forms, some of which are easily convertible and can be changed to
another form useful for work. Most of the world's convertible energy comes from
UNIT-II 2. 3
fossil fuels that are burned to produce heat that is then used as a transfer medium to
mechanical or other means in order to accomplish tasks. Electrical energy is usually
measured in kilowatthours, while heat energy is usually measured in British thermal
units.
Energy Charge: That portion of the charge for electric service based upon the
electric energy (kWh) consumed or billed
Outage: The period during which a generating unit, transmission line, or other facility
is out of service.
Forced Outage: The shutdown of a generating unit, transmission line or other
facility, for emergency reasons or a condition in which the generating equipment is
unavailable for load due to unanticipated breakdown.
Fuel: Any substance that can be burned to produce heat; also, materials that can be
fissioned in a chain reaction to produce heat.
UNIT-II 2. 4
2. INTRODUCTION
Accurate models for electric power load forecasting are essential to the operation and
planning of a utility company. Load forecasting helps an electric utility to make important
decisions including decisions on purchasing and generating electric power, load switching,
and infrastructure development. Load forecasts are extremely important for energy
suppliers,ISOs, financial institutions, and other participants in electric energy generation,
transmission, distribution, and markets.
Load forecasts can be divided into three categories: short-term fore-casts which are
usually from one hour to one week, medium forecasts which are usually from a
week to a
year, and long-term forecasts which are longer than a year.
The forecasts for different time horizons are important for different operations within
a utility company. The natures of these forecasts are different as well. For example,
for a
particular region, it is possible to predict the next day load with an accuracy of
approximately
1-3%. However, it is impossible to predict the next year peak load with the similar
accuracy
since accurate long-term weather forecasts are not available. For the next year peak
forecast,
it is possible to provide the probability distribution of the load based on historical
weather
observations. It is also possible, according to the industry practice, to predict the so-
called
weather normalized load, which would take place for average annual peak weather
conditions
or worse than average peak weather conditions for a given area. Weather normalized
load is
the load calculated for the so-called normal weather conditions which are the average
of the
weather characteristics for the peak historical loads over a certain period of
time. The
duration of this period varies from one utility to another. Most companies take the last
25-30
years of data. Load forecasting has always been important for planning and opera-
tional
decision conducted by utility companies. However, with the deregulation of the
energy
UNIT-II industries, load forecasting is even more important. With supply and demand2. 5
fluctuating and
the changes of weather conditions and energy prices increasing by a factor of ten or
more
important than in a non-deregulated economy when rate increases could be justified by

capital expenditure projects.
Most forecasting methods use statistical techniques or artificial intelligence
algorithms such as regression, neural networks, fuzzy logic, and expert systems. Two
of the
methods, so-called end-use and econometric approach are broadly used for
medium- and
long-term forecasting. A variety of methods, which include the so-called similar
day
approach, various regression models, time series, neural networks, statistical learning
algorithms, fuzzy logic, and expert systems, have been developed for short-term
forecasting.
As we see, a large variety of mathematical methods and ideas have been used for
load forecasting. The development and improvements of appropriate mathematical
tools will
lead to the development of more accurate load forecasting techniques. The accuracy
of load
forecasting
2.1. SYSTEM depends
LOAD not only on the load forecasting techniques, but also on the
FORECASTING
accuracy of
2.1.1. Important Factors for Forecasts
forecasted weather scenarios. Weather forecasting is an important topic which is
outside of
the scopeload
For short-term of this chapter. several factors should be considered, such as time factors,
forecasting
weather data, and possible customers’ classes. The medium- and long-term forecasts take
into account the historical load and weather data, the number of customers in different
categories, the appliances in the area and their characteristics including age, the economic
and demographic data and their forecasts, the appliance sales data, and other factors.
The time factors include the time of the year, the day of the week, and the hour of the day.
There are important differences in load between weekdays and weekends. The load on
different weekdays also can behave differently. For example, Mondays and Fridays being
adjacent to weekends, may have structurally different loads than Tuesday through Thursday.
This is particularly true during the summer time. Holidays are more difficult to forecast than
non-holidays because of their relative infrequent occurrence.
Weather conditions influence the load. In fact, forecasted weather parameters are the most
important factors in short-term load forecasts. Various weather variables could be
considered
for load forecasting. Tem-perature and humidity are the most commonly used
load
UNIT-II 2. 6
predictors.
Among the weather variables listed above, two composite weather variable functions, the
THI (temperature-humidity index) and WCI (wind chill index), are broadly used by utility
companies. THI is a measure of summer heat discomfort and similarly WCI is cold stress
in
winter.
Most electric utilities serve customers of different types such as residential, commercial,
and industrial. The electric usage pattern is different for customers that belong to different
classes but is somewhat alike for customers within each class. Therefore, most utilities
distinguish load behavior on a class-by-class basis.
2.1.2. Forecasting Methods

Over the last few decades a number of forecasting methods have been developed. Two of
the methods, so-called end-use and econometric ap-proach are broadly used for medium-
and
long-term forecasting. A variety of methods, which include the so-called similar day
approach, various regression models, time series, neural networks, expert systems,
fuzzy
logic, and statistical learning algorithms, are used for short-term forecasting.
The
development, improvements, and investigation of the appropriate mathematical tools
will
Statistical approaches usually require a mathematical model that rep-resents load as
lead to the development of more accurate load forecasting techniques.
function of different factors such as time, weather, and customer class. The two important
categories of such mathematical models are: additive models and multiplicative models. They
differ in whether the forecast load is the sum (additive) of a number of components or the
product (multiplicative) of a number of factors.
For example, presented an additive model that takes the form of predicting load as the
function of four components:
L = Ln + Lw + Ls + Lr, -------------------------------------------- (1)
where L is the total load, L n represents the “normal” part of the load, which is a set of
standardized load shapes for each “type” of day that has been identified as occurring
throughout the year, Lw represents the weather sensitive part of the load, Ls is a special event
UNIT-II 2. 7
component that create a substantial deviation from the usual load pattern, and Lr is a
completely random term, the noise.
Naturally, price decreases/increases affect electricity consumption. Large cost sensitive

industrial and institutional loads can have a significant effect on loads..
A multiplicative model may be of the form
L = Ln+ Fw +Fs+ Fr, -------------------------------------------------- (2)

where Ln is the normal (base) load and the correction factors Fw , Fs, and Fr are positive
numbers that can increase or decrease the overall load. These corrections are based on current
weather (Fw ), special events (Fs), and random fluctuation (Fr ). Factors such as electricity
pricing (Fp) and load growth (Fg ) can also be included. Weather variables and the base load
associated with the weather measures were included in the model.
2.1.3. Medium- and long-term load forecasting methods

The end-use modeling, econometric modeling, and their combinations are the most often
used methods for medium- and long-term load fore-casting. Descriptions of appliances
used
by customers, the sizes of the houses, the age of equipment, technology changes, customer
behavior, and population dynamics are usually included in the statistical and simulation
models based on the so-called end-use approach. In addition, economic factors such as per
capita incomes, employment levels, and electricity prices are included in
econometric
models. These models are often used in combination with the end-use approach. Long-term
fore-casts include the forecasts on the population changes, economic development,
industrial
construction,
End-use models.andThe
technology
end-use development.
approach directly estimates energy consumption by using
extensive information on end use and end users, such as appliances, the customer use, their
age, sizes of houses, and so on. Statistical information about customers along with dynamics
of change is the basis for the forecast.
End-use models focus on the various uses of electricity in the residential, commercial, and
industrial sector. These models are based on the principle that electricity demand is derived
from customer’s demand for light, cooling, heating, refrigeration, etc.
UNIT-II 2. 8
Ideally this approach is very accurate. However, it is sensitive to the amount and quality of
end-use data. For example, in this method the distribution of equipment age is important for
particular types of appliances. End-use forecast requires less historical data but more in-
formation about customers and their equipment.
Econometric models. The econometric approach combines economic theory and statistical
techniques for forecasting electricity demand. The approach estimates the relationships
between energy consumption (de-pendent variables) and factors influencing consumption.
The relation-ships are estimated by the least-squares method or time series methods.
One of the options in this framework is to aggregate the econometric approach, when
consumption in different sectors (residential, commercial, industrial, etc.) is calculated as a
function of weather, economic and other variables, and then estimates are assembled using
recent historical data. Integration of the econometric approach into the end-use approach
introduces behavioral components into the end-use equations.
Statistical model-based learning. The end-use and econometric methods require a large
amount of information relevant to appliances, customers, economics, etc. Their application is
complicated and requires human participation. In addition such information is often not
available regarding particular customers and a utility keeps and supports a pro-file of an
“average” customer or average customers for different type of customers. The problem arises
if the utility wants to conduct next-year forecasts for sub-areas, which are often called load
pockets. In this case, the amount of the work that should be performed increases proportion-
ally with the number of load pockets. In addition, end-use profiles and econometric data for
different load pockets are typically different. The characteristics for particular areas may be
different from the average characteristics for the utility and may not be available.
We compared several load models and came to the conclusion that the following
multiplicative model is the most accurate
L(t) = F (d(t), h(t)) · f (w(t)) + R(t),--------------------------------------(3)
where L(t) is the actual load at time t, d(t) is the day of the week, h(t) is the hour of the day, F
(d, h) is the daily and hourly component, w(t) is the weather data that include the temperature
UNIT-II 2. 9
and humidity, f (w) is the weather factor, and R(t) is a random error.
In fact, w (t) is a vector that consists of the current and lagged weather variables. This
reflects the fact that electric load depends not only on the current weather conditions but also
on the weather during the previous hours and days. In particular, the well-known effect of the
so-called heat waves is that the use of air conditioners increases when the hot weather
continues for several days.
2.2. ECONOMIC DISPATCH

2.2.1. Economic Operation of Power Systems
One of the earliest applications of on-line centralized control was to provide a central
facility, to operate economically, several generating plants supplying the loads of the system.
Modern integrated systems have different types of generating plants, such as coal fired
thermal plants, hydel plants, nuclear plants, oil and natural gas units etc. The capital
investment, operation and maintenance costs are different for different types of plants.
The operation economics can again be subdivided into two parts.

i) Problem of economic dispatch, which deals with determining the power output of each
plant to meet the specified load, such that the overall fuel cost is minimized.
ii) Problem of optimal power flow, which deals with minimum – loss delivery, where in the
power flow, is optimized to minimize losses in the system. In this chapter we consider the
problem of economic dispatch.
During operation of the plant, a generator may be in one of the following states:
i) Base supply without regulation: the output is a constant.

ii) Base supply with regulation: output power is regulated based on system load.
iii) Automatic non-economic regulation: output level changes around a base setting as area
control error changes.
iv) Automatic economic regulation: output level is adjusted, with the area load and area
control error, while tracking an economic setting.
UNIT-II 2. 10
Regardless of the units operating state, it has a contribution to the economic

operation,
even though its output is changed for different reasons. The factors influencing the cost of
generation are the generator efficiency, fuel cost and transmission losses. The most efficient
generator may not give minimum cost, since it may be located in a place where fuel cost is
high. Further, if the plant is located far from the load centers, transmission losses may be high
and running the plant may become uneconomical. The economic dispatch problem basically
determines the generation of different plants to minimize total operating cost.
Modern generating plants like nuclear plants, geo-thermal plants etc, may require
capital
Investment of millions of rupees. The economic dispatch is however determined in
terms of
fuel cost per unit power generated and does not include capital investment,
maintenance,
depreciation, start-up and shut down costs etc.
2.2.2. Performance
Curves
Input-Output Curve
This is the fundamental curve for a thermal plant and is a plot of the input in British
thermal units (Btu) per hour versus the power output of the plant in MW as shown in Fig 2.1
Figure 2.1: Input – output curve

Heat Rate Curve
The heat rate is the ratio of fuel input in Btu to energy output in KWh. It is the slope of the
input – output curve at any point. The reciprocal of heat – rate is called fuel –efficiency. The
heat rate curve is a plot of heat rate versus output in MW. A typical plot is shown in Fig.2.2
UNIT-II 2. 11
Figure 2.2 Heat rate curve.

Incremental Fuel Rate Curve
The incremental fuel rate is equal to a small change in input divided by the corresponding
change in output.
Incremental fuel rate =∆Input/∆ Output

The unit is again Btu / KWh. A plot of incremental fuel rate versus the output is shown in
Figure 2.3: Incremental fuel rate curve

Incremental cost curve
The incremental cost is the product of incremental fuel rate and fuel cost (Rs / Btu or $ /Btu).
The curve in shown in Fig. 4. The unit of the incremental fuel cost is Rs / MWh or $ /MWh.
Figure 2.4: Incremental cost curve
UNIT-II 2. 12
In general, the fuel cost Fi for a plant, is approximated as a quadratic function of the
generated output PGi.
Fi = ai + bi PGi + ci PG2 Rs / h --------------------------------- (4)
The incremental fuel cost is given by

𝑑� 𝑖
𝑑𝑝𝑖
= 𝑏𝑖 + 2𝑖 𝑃�𝑖 Rs / MWh ------------------------------------
(5)
The incremental fuel cost is a measure of how costly it will be produce an increment of
power. The incremental production cost, is made up of incremental fuel cost plus the
incremental cost of labour, water, maintenance etc. which can be taken to be some percentage
of the incremental fuel cost, instead of resorting to a rigorous mathematical model. The cost
curve can be approximated by a linear curve. While there is negligible operating cost for a
hydel plant, there is a limitation on the power output possible. In any plant, all units normally
operate between PGmin, the minimum loading limit, below which it is technically infeasible
to operate a unit and PGmax, which is the maximum output limit.
2.2.3. Solution Methods:

1. Lagrange Multiplier method
2. Lamda iteration method
3. Gradient method
4. Dynamic programming
5. Evolutionary Computation techniques
2.2.4. The Economic Dispatch Problem
Figure 2.5 shows the configuration that will be studied in this section.
This system consists of N thermal-generating units connected to a single bus-bar serving a
received electrical load Pload input to each unit, shown as F I,represents the cost rate of the
unit. The output of each unit, Pi, is the electrical power generated by that particular unit. The
total cost rate of this system is, of course, the sum of the costs of each of the individual units.
The essential constraint on the operation of this system is that the sum of the output powers
must equal the load demand.Mathematically speaking, the problem may be stated very
concisely. That is, an objective function, F T, is equal to the total cost for supplying the
indicated load. The problem is to minimize FT subject to the constraint that the sum of the
UNIT-II 2. 13
powers generated must equal the received load. Note that any transmission losses are
neglected and any operating limits are not explicitly stated when formulating this problem.
That is,
------------------------------------------ (6)
Figure2.5. N thermal units committed to serve a load of P load.
This is a constrained optimization problem that may be attacked formally using advanced
calculus methods that involve the Lagrange function. In order to establish the necessary
conditions for an extreme value of the objective function, add the constraint function to the
objective function after the constraint function has been multiplied by an undetermined
multiplier. This is known as the Lagrange function and is shown in Eq(7)
------------------------------------------------ (7)
The necessary conditions for an extreme value of the objective function result when we
take the first derivative of the Lagrange function with respect to each of the independent
variables and set the derivatives equal to zero. In this case,there are N+1 variables, the N
values of power output, Pi, plus the undetermined Lagrange multiplier, λ. The derivative of
the Lagrange function with respect to the undetermined multiplier merely gives back the
constraint equation. On the other hand, the N equations that result when we take the
partial derivative of the Lagrange function with respect to the power output values one at a
time give the set of equations shown as Eq. 8.
----------------------------------------------- (8)
UNIT-II 2. 14
When we recognize the inequality constraints, then the necessary conditions may be
expanded slightly as shown in the set of equations making up Eq. 9
--------------------------------------------- (9)
Several of the examples in this chapter use the following three generator units.
EXAMPLE 2.1
Suppose that we wish to determine the economic operating point for these three units
when delivering a total of 850 MW. Before this problem can be solved,the fuel cost
of each
unit must be specified. Let the following fuel costs are in effect.
Unit 1: Coal-fired steam unit: Max output = 600 MW Min output = 150 MW
Input-output curve:
Unit 2 Oil-fired steam unit: Max output = 400 MW

Min output = 100 MW
Input-output curve:
Unit 3: Oil-fired steam unit: Max output = 200 MW, Min output = 50 MW
Input-output curve:
Unit 1: fuel cost = 1.1 P/MBtu

Unit 2: fuel cost = 1.0 Jt/MBtu
Unit 3: fuel cost = 1.0 Jt/MBtu
Then
UNIT-II 2. 15
Using Eq. 3.5, the conditions for an optimum dispatch are
and then solving for, P1,P2,P3

P1 = 393.2 MW
P2 = 334.6 MW
P3 = 122.2 MW
Note that all
constraints are
met; that is,
each unit is
within its high
EXAMPLE
and low limit 2.2
and the total
Suppose the price of coal decreased to 0.9 P/MBtu. The fuel cost function for unit 1 becomes
output when summed over all three units meet the desired 850 MW total.
If one goes about the solution exactly as done here, the results are
This solution meets the constraint requiring total generation to equal 850 MW, but units 1 and
3 are not within limit. To solve for the most economic dispatch while meeting unit limits,
suppose unit 1 is set to its maximum output and unit 3 to its minimum output. The dispatch
becomes
UNIT-II 2. 16
we see that λ must equal the incremental cost of unit 2 since it

is not at either limit. Then
Next, calculate the incremental cost for units 1 and 3 to see if they meet the conditions.
Note that the incremental cost for unit 1 is less than λ, so unit 1 should be at its maximum.
However, the incremental cost for unit 3 is not greater than ,λ so unit 3 should not be forced
to its minimum. Thus, to find the optimal dispatch, allow the incremental cost at units 2 and 3
to equal λ as follows.
UNIT-II 2. 17
2.2.5. Thermal System Dispatching With Network Losses Considered
Figure 2.6. Shows symbolically an all-thermal power generation system connected to

an equivalent load bus through a transmission network. The economic dispatching problem
associated with this particular configuration is slightly more complicated to set up than the
previous case. This is because the constraint equation is now one that must include the
network losses. The objective function, FT, is the same as that defined for Eq.10
------------------ (10)
The same procedure is followed in the formal sense to establish the necessary
conditions for a minimum-cost operating solution, The Lagrange function is shown in
Eq.11.
In taking the derivative of the Lagrange function with respect to each of the individual
power
outputs, Pi, it must be recognized that the loss in the transmission network, Ploss is a
function
of the network impedances and the currents flowing in the network. For our purposes,
the
currents will be considered only as a function of the independent variables Pi and
the load
Pload taking the derivative of the Lagrange function with respect to any one of the N
values of
Pi results in Eq. 11. collectively as the coordination equations.
----------------------------------- (11)
It is much more difficult to solve this set of equations than the previous set with no
losses since this second set involves the computation of the network loss in order to
establish
the validity of the solution in satisfying the constraint equation. There have been two
general
approaches to the solution of this problem. The first is the development of a
mathematical
expression for the losses in the network solely as a function of the power output of
each of
the units. This is the loss-formula method discussed at some length in
Kirchmayer’s
Economic Operation of Power Systems. The other basic approach to the solution of
this
problem is to incorporate the power flow equations as essential constraints in the
formal
UNIT-II 2. 18
establishment of the optimization problem. This general approach is known as the
optimal
power flow.
Figure.2.6.N thermal units serving load through transmission network
2.2.6. The Lambda-Iteration Method

Figure 2.7.is a block diagram of the lambda-iteration method of solution for the all-
thermal, dispatching problem-neglecting losses. We can approach the solution to this
problem
by considering a graphical technique for solving the problem and then extending this
into the
area of computer algorithms. Suppose we have a three-machine system and wish to
find the
optimum economic operating point. One approach would be to plot the incremental
cost
characteristics for each of these three units on the same graph, such as sketched in
Figure 3.4.
In order to establish the operating points of each of these three units such that we have
minimum cost and at the same time satisfy the specified demand, we could use this
sketch
and a ruler to find the solution. That is, we could assume an incremental cost rate (λ)
and find
the power outputs of each of the three units for this value of incremental cost. the three
units
for this value of incremental cost. Of course, our first estimate will be incorrect. If we
have
assumed the value of incremental cost such that the total power output is too low, we
must
increase the 3. value and try another solution. With two solutions, we can extrapolate
(or
interpolate) the two solutions to get closer to the desired value of total received power.
By
keeping track of the total demand versus the incremental cost, we can rapidly find the
desired
UNIT-II 2. 19
operating point. If we wished, we could manufacture a whole series of tables that
would show
the total power supplied for different
incremental cost levels and combinations of units. That is, we will now establish a set of
logical rules that would enable us to accomplish the same objective as we have just done with
ruler and graph paper. The actual details of how the power output is established as a function
of the incremental cost rate are of very little importance.
Figure: 2.7. Lambda-iteration method
We could, for example, store tables of data within the computer and interpolate
between the stored power points to find exact power output for a specified value of
incremental cost rate. Another approach would be to develop an analytical function for the
power output as a function of the incremental cost rate, store this function (or its coefficients)
in the computer, and use this to establish the output of each of the individual units.
This procedure is an iterative type of computation, and we must establish stopping

rules. Two general forms of stopping rules seem appropriate for this application..The lambda-
iteration procedure converges very rapidly for this particular type of optimization problem.
The actual computational procedure is slightly more complex than that indicated in Figure 2.7
since it is necessary to observe the operating limits on each of the units during the course of
the computation. The well-known Newton-Raphson method may be used to project the
incremental cost value to drive the error between the computed and desired generation to
zero.
UNIT-II 2. 20
Example: 2.3
Given the generator cost functions found in Example 2.1, solve for the economic
dispatch of generation with a total load of 800 MW.Using α = 100 and starting from P 10= 300
MW, P2 0 = 200 MW, and P3 0=300 MW, we set the initial value of λ. equal to the average of
the incremental costs of the generators at their starting generation values. This value is
9.4484.The progress of the gradient search is shown in Table 3.2. The table shows that the
iterations have led to no solution at all. Attempts to use this formulation
will result in difficulty as the gradient cannot guarantee that the adjustment to the generators
will result in a schedule that meets the correct total load of 800 MW.A simple variation of
this technique is to realize that one of the generators is always a dependent variable and
remove it from the problem. In this case, we pick P 3 and use the following:
Then the total cost, which is to be minimized, is:
Note that this function stands by itself as a function of two variables with no
load-generation balance constraint (and no λ). The cost can be minimized by
a gradient method and in this case the gradient is:
\
Note that this gradient goes to the
zero vector when the incremental
cost at generator 3 is
equal to that at generators 1 and 2.
The gradient steps are performed in
the same manner as
previously, where:
UNIT-II 2. 21
------------------------------------ (12)
Each time a gradient step is made, the generation at generator 3 is set to 800 minus the sum of
the generation at generators 1 and 2. This method is often called the “reduced gradient”
because of the smaller number of variables.
2.2.7. Base Point and Participation Factors

This method assumes that the economic
dispatch problem has to be solved repeatedly
by
moving the generators from one
economically optimum schedule to another as
the load
changes by a reasonably small amount. We
start from a given schedule-the base point.
Next,
ith
the scheduler assumes a load change and
investigates how much each generating unit
needs
to be moved (i.e.,“participate” in the load
change) in order that the new load be served
at the ----------------------------------------- (13)
This
most iseconomic
true for each of the N
operating units on the system,
point.Assume that so that
both the first and second derivatives in the
cost
versus power output function are available
(Le., both F; and Fy exist). The incremental
cost
curve of the unit is given in Figure 3.7.
As the unit load is changed by an amount,
the ---------------------------------------(14)
The total
system change in generation
incremental cost moves(=change in0 total
from λ 0toλ for asystem demand)
small change in is, of course,
power outputthe
on sum of the
this single
individual
unit, unit changes. Let P d be the total demand on the generators (where Pload+Ploss&),
then
UNIT-II 2. 22
---------------------------------------- (15)
The earlier equation, 15, can be used to find the participation factor for each unit as follows
--------------------------------------- (16)
The computer implementation of such a scheme of economic dispatch is straightforward. It
might be done by provision of tables of the values of FY as a function of the load levels and
devising a simple scheme to take the existing load plus the projected increase to look up these
data and compute the factors. somewhat less elegant scheme to provide participation factors
would involve a repeat economic dispatch calculation at. The base-point economic generation
values are then subtracted from the new economic generation values and the difference
divided to provide the participation factors. This scheme works well in computer
implementations where the execution time for the economic dispatch is short and will always
give consistent answers when units reach limits, pass through break points on piecewise
linear incremental cost functions, or have nonconvex cost curves.
EXAMPLE 2.4
Starting from the optimal economic solution found in Example 2A; use the participation
factor method to calculate the dispatch for a total load of 900 MW.
UNIT-II 2. 23
2.2.8. Economic dispatch controller added to LFC:
Both the load frequency control and the economic dispatch issue commands to change
the power setting of each turbine-governor unit. At a first glance it may seem that these two
commands can be conflicting. This however is not true. A typical automatic generation
control strategy is shown in Fig. 5.5 in which both the objective are coordinated. First we
compute the area control error. A share of this ACE, proportional to αi , is allocated to each
of the turbine-generator unit of an area. Also the share of unit- i , γi X Σ( PDK - Pk ), for the
deviation of total generation from actual generation is computed. Also the error between the
economic power setting and actual power setting of unit- i is computed. All these signals are
then combined and passed through a proportional gain K i to obtain the turbine-governor
control signal.
Figure: 2.8. Economic dispatch controller added to LFC
UNIT-II 2. 24
2.3. UNIT COMMITMENT

The life style of a modern man follows regular habits and hence the present society
also follows regularly repeated cycles or pattern in daily life. Therefore, the
consumption of
electrical energy also follows a predictable daily, weekly and seasonal pattern. There
are
periods of high power consumption as well as low power consumption. It is
therefore
possible to commit the generating units from the available capacity into service to
meet the
demand. The previous discussions all deal with the computational aspects for
allocating load
to a plant in the most economical manner. For a given combination of plants
the
determination of optimal combination of plants for operation at any one time is also
desired
for carrying out the aforesaid task. The plant commitment and unit ordering schedules
extend
the period of optimization from a few minutes to several hours. From daily schedules
weekly
patterns caninbeUnit
2.3.1. Constraints developed. Likewise, monthly, seasonal and annual schedules can be
Commitment
prepared
Many constraints can be placed on the unit commitment problem. The list presented
taking into consideration the repetitive nature of the load demand and seasonal
here is by no means exhaustive. Each individual power system, power pool,
variations.
reliability
Unit commitment schedules are thus required for economically committing the units
council, and so forth, may impose different rules on the scheduling of units,
in plants
depending on the
to service with the time at which individual units should be taken out from or
generation makeup, load-curve characteristics,
returned to
and such.
service.
2.3.2. Spinning Reserve
Spinning reserve is the term used to describe the total amount of generation available
from all units synchronized (i.e., spinning) on the system, minus the present load and
losses
being supplied. Spinning reserve must be carried so that the loss of one or more
units does
not cause too far a drop in system frequency. Quite simply, if one unit is lost, there
must be
ample reserve on the other units to make up for the loss in a specified time
period.Spinning
reserve must be allocated to obey certain rules, usually set by regional reliability
councils (in
UNIT-II 2. 25
the United States) that specify how the reserve is to be allocated to various units.
Typical
rules specify that reserve must be a given percentage of forecasted peak demand, or
having sufficient generation to meet the load.Not only must the reserve be sufficient to make
up for a generation-unit failure, but the reserves must be allocated among fast-responding
units and slow-responding units. This allows the automatic generation control system to
restore frequency and interchange quickly in the event of a generating-unit outage. Beyond
spinning reserve, the unit commitment problem may involve various classes of “scheduled
reserves” or “off-line” reserves. These include quick-start
diesel or gas-turbine units as well as most hydro-units and pumped-storage hydro-units that
can be brought on-line, synchronized, and brought up to full capacity quickly. As such, these
units can be “counted” in the overall reserve assessment, as long as their time to come up to
full capacity is taken into account. Reserves, finally, must be spread around the power system
to avoid transmission system limitations (often called “bottling” of reserves) and to allow
various parts of the system to run as “islands,” should they become electrically disconnected.
2.3.3. Thermal Unit Constraints

Thermal units usually require a crew to operate them, especially when turned on and turned
off. A thermal unit can undergo only gradual temperature changes, and this translates into a
time period of some hours required to bring the unit on-line. As a result of such restrictions in
the operation of a thermal plant, various constraints arise, such as:
1. Minimum up time: once the unit is running, it should not be turned off immediately
2. Minimum down time: once the unit is decommitted, there is a minimum time before it
can be recommitted.
3. Crew constraints: if a plant consists of two or more units, they cannot both be turned on
at the same time since there are not enough crew members to attend both units while starting
up. In addition, because the temperature and pressure of the thermal unit must be moved
slowly, a certain amount of energy must be expended to bring the unit on-line. This energy
does not result in any MW generation from the unit and is brought into the unit commitment
problem as a start-up cost. The start-up cost can vary from a maximum “cold-start” value to a
much smaller value if the unit was only turned off recently and is still relatively close to
operating temperature. There are two approaches to treating a thermal unit during its down
period. The first allows the unit’s boiler to cool down and then heat back up to operating
temperature in time for a scheduled turn on. The second (called banking) requires that
sufficient energy be input to the boiler to just maintain operating temperature. The costs for
the two can be compared so that, if possible, the best approach (cooling or banking) can be
chosen.
UNIT-II 2. 26
Start-up cost when cooling = Cc 1 − �� × F+Cf------------------------------------------------- (17)

−��/
Where 𝛼
Cc = cold-start cost (MBtu)
F = fuel cost
Cf= fixed cost (includes crew expense, maintenance expenses) (in R)
α = thermal time constant for the unit
t = time (h) the unit was cooled
Start-up cost when banking = C t x t x F+Cf
Where
Ct = cost (MBtu/h) of maintaining unit at operating temperature
Up to a certain number of hours, the cost of banking will be less than the cost of cooling, as is
illustrated in Figure 5.3.Finally, the capacity limits of thermal units may change frequently,
due to maintenance or unscheduled outages of various equipment in the plant; this must also
be taken
2.3.4 Other Constraints
2.3.4.1 Hydro-Constraints
Unit commitment cannot be
completely separated from
the scheduling of hydro-
units. In this
text, we will assume that
the hydrothermal
scheduling (or
“coordination”) problem
can be
separated from the unit
commitment problem. We,
of course, cannot assert
flatly that our
treatment in this fashion
will always
result in an optimal solution.
Figure 2.9 Hydro-Constraints
UNIT-II 2. 27
2.3.4.2 Must Run

Some units are given a must-run status during certain times of the year for reason of voltage
support on the transmission network or for such purposes as supply of steam for uses outside
the steam plant itself.
2.3.4.3 Fuel Constraints

We will treat the “fuel scheduling” problem system in which some units have limited fuel, or
else have constraints that require them to burn a specified amount of fuel in a given time,
presents a most challenging unit commitment problem.
2.3.5. Unit Commitment Solution Methods

The commitment problem can be very difficult. As a theoretical exercise, let us postulate the
following situation.
1. We must establish a loading pattern for M periods.
2. We have N units to commit and dispatch.
3. The M load levels and operating limits on the N units are such that any one
unit can
supply the individual loads and that any combination of units can also supply the
loads.
Next, assume we are going to establish the commitment by enumeration (brute force). The
total number of combinations we need to try each hour is,
C (N, 1) + C (N,2) + ... + C(N, N - 1) + C ( N , N ) = 2N – 1-----------------------------------(18)
Where C (N, j) is the combination of N items taken j at a time. That is,
-----------------------------------------(19)
For the total period of M intervals, the maximum number of possible combinations is (2N -
l)M, which can become a horrid number to think about.
For example, take a 24-h period (e.g., 24 one-hour intervals) and consider systems with 5, 10,
20, and 40 units. The value of (2N - 1)24 becomes the following.
UNIT-II 2. 28
N (2N - 1)24
5 6.2 ×1035
10 1.73×1072
20 3.12×10144
40 Too big
These very large numbers are the upper bounds for the number of enumerations required.
Fortunately, the constraints on the units and the load-capacity relationships of typical utility
systems are such that we do not approach these large numbers. Nevertheless, the real
practical barrier in the optimized unit commitment problem is the high dimensionality of the
possible solution space. The most talked-about techniques for the solution of the unit
commitment problem are:
1. Priority-list schemes,
2. Dynamic programming (DP),
3. Lagrange relation (LR).
2.3.5.1. Priority-List Methods

The simplest unit commitment solution method consists of creating a priority list of
units. As we saw in Example 5B, a simple shut-down rule or priority-list scheme
could be
obtained after an exhaustive enumeration of all unit combinations at each load level.
The
priority list of Example 5B could be obtained in a much simpler manner by noting the
full-
load average production cost of each unit, where the full-load average production
cost is
Priority List Method:
simply the net heat rate at full load multiplied by the fuel cost.
Priority list method is the simplest unit commitment solution which consists of creating
a
priority list of units.
Full load average production cost= Net heat rate at full load X Fuel cost
Assumptions:
1. No load cost is zero
2. Unit input-output characteristics are linear between zero output and full load
3. Start up costs are a fixed amount
UNIT-II 2. 29
4. Ignore minimum up time and minimum down time

Steps to be followed
1. Determine the full load average production cost for each units
2. Form priority order based on average production cost
3. Commit number of units corresponding to the priority order
4. Alculate PG1, PG2 ………….PGN from economic dispatch problem for the feasible
combinations only
5. For the load curve shown
Assume load is dropping or decreasing, determine whether dropping the next unit will supply
generation & spinning reserve.
If not, continue as it is
If yes, go to the next step
6. Determine the number of hours H, before the unit will be needed again.
7. Check H< minimum shut down time.
If not, go to the last step
If yes, go to the next step
8. Calculate two costs
1. Sumof hourly production for the next H hours with the unit up
2. Recalculate the same for the unit down + start up cost for either cooling or banking
9. Repeat the procedure until the priority list
Merits:
1. No need to go for N combinations
2. Take only one constraint
3. Ignore the minimum up time & down time
4. Complication reduced
Demerits:
1. Start up cost are fixed amount
2. No load costs are not considered.
2.3.5.2. Dynamic-Programming Solution

Dynamic programming has many advantages over the enumeration scheme, the chief
advantage being a reduction in the dimensionality of the problem. Suppose we have found
units in a system and any combination of them could serve the (single) load. There would be
UNIT-II 2. 30
a maximum of 24 - 1 = 15 combinations to test. However, if a strict priority order is imposed,

there are only four combinations to try:
Priority 1 unit
Priority 1 unit + Priority 2 unit
Priority 1 unit + Priority 2 unit + Priority 3 unit
Priority 1 unit + Priority 2 unit + Priority 3 unit + Priority 4 unit
The imposition of a priority list arranged in order of the full-load averagecost rate would
result in a theoretically correct dispatch and commitment only if:
1. No load costs are zero.

2. Unit input-output characteristics are linear between zero output and full load.
3. There are no other restrictions.
4. Start-up costs are a fixed amount.
In the dynamic-programming approach that follows, we assume that:

1. A state consists of an array of units with specified units operating and
2. The start-up cost of a unit is independent of the time it has been off-line
3. There are no costs for shutting down a unit.
4. There is a strict priority order, and in each interval a specified minimum the rest
off-line. (i.e., it is a fixed amount).amount of capacity must be operating.
A feasible state is one in which the committed units can supply the required load and that
meets the minimum amount of capacity each period.
2.3.5.3. Forward DP Approach

One could set up a dynamic-programming algorithm to run backward in time starting
from the final hour to be studied, back to the initial hour. Conversely, one could set up
the
algorithm to run forward in time from the initial hour to the final hour. The forward
approach
has distinct advantages in solving generator unit commitment. For example, if the
start-up
cost of a unit is a function of the time it has been off-line (i.e., its temperature),
then a
forward dynamic-program approach is more suitable since the previous history of the
unit can be computed at each stage. There are other practical reasons for going
UNIT-II
forward. The 2. 31
initial conditions are easily specified and the computations can go forward in time as
long as
required. A forward dynamic-programming algorithm is shown by the flowchart in Figure

2.11 The recursive algorithm to compute the minimum cost in hour K with combinati
Fcost(K,I)= min[Pcost(K,I)+Scost(K-1,L:K,I)+Fcost(K-1,L)] ----------------------------------(20)
Where
Fcost(K, I ) = least total cost to arrive at state ( K , I )
Pcost(KI, ) = production cost for state ( K ,I )
Scost(K - 1, L: K , I)= transition cost from state (K - 1, L) to state ( K , I )
State (K, 1) is the Zth combination in hour K. For the forward dynamic programming
approach, we define a strategy as the transition, or path, from one state at a given hour to a
state at the next hour.
Note that two new variables, X and N, have been introduced in Figure 2.11
X = number of states to search each period
N = number of strategies, or paths, to save at each step
These variables allow control of the computational effort (see below Figure).For complete
enumeration, the maximum number of the value of X or N is 2n – 1
Figure: 2.10. Compute the minimum cost
UNIT-II 2. 32
Figure: 2.11. Forward DP Approach
UNIT-II 2. 33
2.3.5.4. Lagrange Relaxation Solution

The dynamic-programming method of
solution of the unit commitment
problem has many
disadvantages for large power systems
with many generating units. This is
because of the
necessity of forcing the dynamic-
𝑡
programming solution to search over a
small number of
commitment states to reduce the
number of combinations that must be
tested
We in each
shall now time
define several constraints and the objective function of the unit commitment
period.
problem:
We start by defining the variable ��𝑙
as
1. Loading constraints:
----------------------- (21)
2. Unit limits:
3. Unit minimum up- and down-time constraints. Note that other constraints can easily be
formulated and added to the unit commitment problem. These include transmission
security constraints (see Chapter 1 l), generator fuel limit constraints, and system air
quality constraints in the form of limits on emissions from fossil-fired plants, spinning
reserve constraints,etc.
4. The objective function is:
------------------------- (22)
We can then form the Lagrange function similar to the way we did in the economic dispatch
problem:
---------------------------- (23)
UNIT-II 2. 34
Example:2.5
The costs of
two units at
the busses
connected
through a
transmission
line are (with
P1and P2
in MW):
IC1=15+0.1
25 P1;
IC2=20+0.0
DPL/dP2
5 P2, If = ITL2 =0; where, PL=B11P12; i.e., B11= PL/ P12 = 15.625/1252 = 10-3 MW-1
125
MW is-3 2
Thus,
transmitted P1 so that dPL/dP1= ITL1 = 2(10 ) P1 MW
PL=10 -3
from unit-1
Hence
to the we have,
load at bus-2,
IC1 = 15+0.125 P1 = λ (1-ITL1) = 24 {1 - 2(10-3) P1} and
at which the
unit-2 is
IC2 = 20+0.05 P2 = λ (1-ITL2) = λ = 24
present, a
line loss of
Solving, we get, P1=52 MW and P2= 80 MW.
15.625 MW
is incurred.
Total loss = Total Generation – Total Load = (P1+P2) – PLoad
Find the
required
generation
for each of
the units and
the power
received by
the load
when the
system
lambda is
Rs.24.0 per
MWHr. Use
Penalty
Factor
method.
Solution:
With unit-2 not contributing to the line loss, it is due to the unit-1 alone, and hence,
UNIT-II 2. 35
QUESTION BANK
PART- A
1. What is meant by incremental cost curve?

2. Write the constraints in Unit Commitment.
3. What is the purpose of economic dispatch? What is meant by unit
commitment?
4. List the various constraints in modern power systems.
5. What is meant by unit commitment?
6. What is system load forecasting?
7. Compare unit commitment and economic dispatch.
8. What are the advantages of using participation factor?
9. Explain penalty factor.
10. Define Participation factor.
11. What is priority list method?
PART-B
1. Explain briefly the constraints on unit commitment problem.
2. Explain priority list method using two schemes.
3. Explain with a neat flow chart the procedure for finding the
solution for unit
commitment problems using forward DP (FDP) method.
The input-output curve characteristics of three units are F1=940+5.46PG1+.0016P G1,
2
4.
F2=820+5.35PG2+.0019P2 G2, F3=99+5.65 PG3+.0032P G3.Total load is 600MW.use the
2
Participation factor method to calculate the economic dispatch for load is reduced to 550MW?
5. Consider three units,
a. 2
C1=561+7.92P1+0.00156P1
2
b. C2=310+7.85P2+0.00194P2
c. C3=780+7.97P3+0.00482P32
6. Unit Minimum Maximum

1 150 600
2 100 400
3 50 200
Find the priority list method using full load average production cost which the units
are committed and de committed in unit commitment problem.
UNIT-II 2. 36
7. The input –output curve characteristics of three units are:

F1=750+6.49 PG1+0.0035P2G1, F2=870+5.75 PG2+0.0015P2G2
F3=620+8.56 PG3+0.001P2G3, the fuel cost of unit 1, 2, 3 is 1.0 Rs / Mbtu.Total load
is 800 MW. Use Participation factor method to calculate the dispatch for a load is
increased to 880MW?
8. Draw the flow chart for obtaining the optimum dispatch strategy of N-bus system
with and without transmission loss.
9. Explain the reserve requirement & types of reserve.
10. Explain the classifications of load forecasting and need for load forecasting.
11. Give λ-iteration algorithm for solving economic scheduling problem, without
transmission loss.
12. Explain the economic dispatch controller added to LFC control.
UNIT-II 2. 37
UNIT –III
SYSTEM
CONTROL –
REAL
POWER –
FREQUENCY
CONTROL
UNIT-3 3. 1
CONTENTS
TECHNICAL TERMS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL
3.3 Q-V CONTROL LOOPS
3.4 P-F CONTROL LOOPS
3.4.1 Primary ALFC
3.4.2 Secondary ALFC
3.5 FUNDAMENTAL OF SPEED GOVERNING

3.6 AUTOMATIC LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL
3.6.1 Steady State Performance of the ALFC Loop
3.6.2 Concept of AGC (Supplementary ALFC Loop)
3.6.3 AGC in a Single Area System
3.7 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF THE ONE-AREA SYSTEM
3.8 AGC IN A MULTI AREA SYSTEM
3.9 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL
LOOPS
3.10 INTERCONNECTED OPERATION
3.10.1 Flat frequency of inter connected stations
3.10.2 Flat tie line and flat frequency control
3.10.3 Tie line bias control
3.10.4 Two area system Tie line power model
3.10.5 Dynamic response
QUESTION BANK
UNIT-3 3. 2
TECHNICAL TERMS
Control area: Most power systems normally control their generators in unison. The
individual control loops have the same regulation parameters. The individual generator
turbines tend to have the same response characteristics then it is possible to let the control
loop in the whole system which then would be referred to as a control area.
Power Pool: An association of two or more interconnected electric systems having an

agreement to coordinate operations and planning for improved reliability and efficiencies.
Prime Mover: The engine, turbine, water wheel, or similar machine that drives an
electric generator; or, for reporting purposes, a device that converts energy to electricity
directly (e.g., photovoltaic solar and fuel cell(s)).
Pumped-Storage Hydroelectric Plant: A plant that usually generates electric energy

during peak-load periods by using water previously pumped into an elevated storage
reservoir during off-peak periods when excess generating capacity is available to do so.
When additional generating capacity is needed, the water can be released from the
reservoir through a conduit to turbine generators located in a power plant at a lower level.
Regulation: The governmental function of controlling or directing economic entities

through the process of rulemaking and adjudication
Reserve Margin (Operating):The amount of unused available capability of an electric
power system at peak load for a utility system as a percentage of total capability.
Restructuring:The process of replacing a monopoly system of electric utilities with

competing sellers, allowing individual retail customers to choose their electricity supplier
but still receive delivery over the power lines of the local utility. It includes the
reconfiguration of the vertically-integrated electric utility.
Retail Wheeling: The process of moving electric power from a point of generation across
one or more utility-owned transmission and distribution systems to a retail customer.
Revenue: The total amount of money received by a firm from sales of its products and/or
services, gains from the sales or exchange of assets, interest and dividends earned on
UNIT-3 3. 3
investments, and other increases in the owner's equity except those arising from capital
adjustments.
Scheduled Outage: The shutdown of a generating unit, transmission line, or other

facility, for inspection or maintenance, in accordance with an advance schedule.
Real power: The real power in a power system is being controlled by controlling the
driving torque of the individual turbines of the system.
UNIT-3 3. 4
3.1. INTRODUCTION
In a power system the load demand is continuously changing. In accordance with it

the power input has also to vary. If the input - output balance is not maintained a change in
frequency will occur. The control of frequency is achieved primarily through speed governor
mechanism aided by supplementary means for precise control. At the outset, the speed
governor mechanisms and its operation will be presented
3.2. LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL

The following basic requirements are to be fulfilled for successful operation of the system:
1. The generation must be adequate to meet all the load demand
2. The system frequency must be maintained within narrow and rigid limits.
3. The system voltage profile must be maintained within reasonable limits and
4. In case of interconnected operation, the tie line power flows must be maintained at the
specified values.
When real power balance between generation and demand is achieved the frequency
specification is automatically satisfied. Similarly, with a balance between reactive
power
generation and demand, voltage profile is also maintained within the prescribed limits.
Under
steady state conditions, the total real power generation in the system equals the total
MW
demand plus real power losses. Any difference is immediately indicated by a change
in speed
or frequency. Generators are fitted with speed governors which will have varying
characteristics: different sensitivities, dead bands response times and droops. They
adjust the
input to match the demand within their limits. Any change in local demand
within
permissible limits is absorbed by generators in the system in a random fashion.
An independent aim of the automatic generation control is to reschedule the
generation changes to preselected machines in the system after the governors have
accommodated the load change in a random manner. Thus, additional or
supplementary
regulation devices are needed along with governors for proper regulation.
The control of generation in this manner is termed load-frequency control. For
interconnected operation, the last of the four requirements mentioned earlier is
fulfilled by
UNIT-3 deriving an error signal from the deviations in the specified tie-line power flows to the 3. 5
neighboring utilities and adding this signal to the control signal of the load-frequency
control
that one of the following alternatives be considered for keeping the system in operating
condition:
I. Starting fast peaking units.
2. Load shedding for unimportant loads, and
3. Generation rescheduling.
It is apparent from the above that since the voltage specifications are not stringent.
Load frequency control is by far the most important in power system control.
Figure 3.1.The block schematic for Load frequency control

In order to understand the mechanism of frequency control, consider a small step
increase in load. The initial distribution of the load increment is determined by the system
impedance; and the instantaneous relative generator rotor positions. The energy required to
supply the load increment is drawn from the kinetic energy of the rotating machines. As a
result, the system frequency drops. The distribution of load during this period among the
various machines is determined by the inertias of the rotors of the generators partaking in the
process. This problem is studied in stability analysis of the system.
After the speed or frequency fall due to reduction in stored energy in the rotors has
taken place, the drop is sensed by the governors and they divide the load increment
between
the machines as determined by the droops of the respective governor characteristics.
Subsequently, secondary control restores the system frequency to its normal
value by
readjusting the governor
characteristics.
UNIT-3 3. 6
3.3. Q-V CONTROL LOOP

The automatic voltage regulator circuit is used for voltage control .This bus bar voltage
is stepped down using a potential transformer to a small value of voltage. This is sent to
the
rectifier circuit which converts Ac voltage into DC voltage and a filter circuit is used
in this
vref inremoves
the comparator and a voltage
the harmonics error V,
.The voltage signal
thus is generated
rectified .The amplified
is compared form of this
with a reference
voltage gives a condition for the generator is stepped up using a transformer and fed to the
bus bar .Thus the voltage is regulated and controlled in the control loop circuit.
3.4. P-F CONTROL LOOP
3.4.1. Primary ALFC:
The circuit primarily controls the steam valve leading to the turbine .A speed senses the
speed of the turbine. This is compared with a reference speed, governor whose main
activity
is to control the speed of the steam by closing and opening of the control valve ie if the
differential speed is low ,then the control valve is opened to let out the steam at high
speed,
thereby increasing turbine’s speed and vice versa. The control of speed in turn controls
the
frequency.
3.4.2. Secondary ALFC:
The circuit involves a frequency sensor that senses the frequency of the bus bar and
compare it with tie line power frequencies in the signal mixer.The output of this is an
area
control error which is sent to the speed changer through integrator .The speed changer
gives
the reference speed to the governor. Integral controller is used to reduce the steady state
frequency change to zero. After this part of the circuit, is the introduction of the primary
ALFC loop whose function has already been described.
3.5. FUNDAMENTALS OF SPEED
GOVERNING
Governor:
The power system is basically dependent upon the synchronous generator and its
satisfactory performance. The important control loops in the system are:
(i) Frequency control, and
(ii) Automatic voltage control.
Frequency control is achieved through generator control mechanism. The governing
UNIT-3 systems for thermal and hydro generating plants are different in nature since, the3. 7
inertia of
water that flows into the turbine presents additional constrains which are not
the shaft is sensed and compared with a reference, and the feedback signal is utilized to
increase or decrease the power generated by controlling the inlet valve to turbine of steam or
water as the case may be
Speed Governing Mechanism
The speed governing mechanism includes the following parts.
Speed Governor:
It is an error sensing device in load frequency control. It includes all the elements that
are directly responsive to speed and influence other elements of the system to initiate
action.
Governor Controlled Valves:
They control the input to the turbine and are actuated by the speed control
mechanism.
Speed Control Mechanism:
It includes all equipment such as levers and linkages,servomotors, amplifying devices
and relays that are placed between the speed governor and the governor controlled
valves.
Speed Changer:
It enables the speed governor system to adjust the speed of the
turbogenerator unit
while in operation.
Figure3.2.speed governing system
The pilot valve v operates to increase or decrease the opening of the steam inlet valve
V. Let XB and Xc be the changes in the position of the pilot valve v and control valve V
responding to a change in governor position. X A due to load. When the pilot valve is closed
XB= 0 and Xc == 0, (Le.,) the control valve is not completely closed, as the unit has to
supply its no-load losses. Let be the no-load angular speed of the turbine. As load is applied,
the speed falls and through the linkages the governor operates to move the piston P
downwards along with points A and B. The pilot valve v admits soil under n and lifts it up so
that the input is increased and speed rise. If the link B e is removed then the pilot valve comes
UNIT-3 3. 8
to rest only when the speed returns to its original value. An "isochronous" characteristic will
be obtained with such an arrangement where speed is restored to its preload-disturbance
value.
With the link Be, the steady state is reached at a speed slightly lower than the no load
speed giving a drooping characteristic for the governor system. A finite value of the
steady
state speed regulation is obtained with this arrangement. For a given speed changer
position,
the per unit steady state speed regulation is defined by
Steady state speed regulation =
No-Nr/N
Where No = Speed at no - load
N r = Rated speed
N = Speed at rated
3.6 AUTOMATIC load FREQUENCY CONTROL
LOAD
The ALFC is to control the frequency deviation by maintaining the real power
balance in the system. The main functions of the ALFC are to i) to maintain the
steady
frequency; ii) control the tie-line flows; and iii) distribute the load
participating
among the generating units. The control (input) signals are the tie-line deviation ∆Ptie
(measured from the tie- line flows), and the frequency deviation ∆f (obtained by
measuring the angle deviation ∆δ). These error signals ∆f and ∆Ptie a r e amplified,
mixed and transformed to a real power signal, which then controls the valve position.
Depending on the valve position, the turbine (prime mover) changes its output power to
establish the real power balance. The complete control schematic is shown in Fig3.3
Figure 3.3: The Schematic representation of ALFC system
UNIT-3 3. 9
For the analysis, the models for each of the blocks in Fig2 are required. The
generator and the electrical load constitute the power system. The valve and the hydraulic
amplifier represent the speed governing system. Using the swing equation, the
generator can be Using the swing equation, the generator can be modeled by
2𝐻� 2
∆δ
�
= ∆Pm − ∆Pe
�
Expressing
� the speed deviation in pu
� ∆w 1
��
∆Pm − ∆Pe
=2𝐻
Figure 3.4. Block Diagram Representation Of The Generator
The load on the system is composite consisting of a frequency independent

component and a frequency dependent component. The load can be written as
Pe = P0 + Pf
Figure 3.5. Block Diagram Representation Of The Generator And Load
UNIT-3 3. 10
where, Pe is the change in the load;

P0 is the frequency independent load component;
Pf is the frequency dependent load component.
Pf = D where, D is called frequency characteristic of the load (also called as damping
constant) expressed in percent change in load for 1% change in frequency. If D=1.5%, then a
1% change in frequency causes 1.5% change in load. The combined generator and the load
(constituting the power system) can then be represented as shown in Fig3.5
The turbine can be modeled as a first order lag as shown in the Fig2.6
Figure 3.6. Turbine Model.

∆��𝑚 𝐾
G(s) =(�)= �
∆��(�)
1+��
Gt(s) is the TF of the turbine; ∆PV(s) is the change in valve output (due to action).
Pm(s) is the change in the turbine output
The governor can similarly modeled as shown in Fig2.7. The output of the governor is by
∆w
∆Pg =
∆𝑃�� − �
Where ∆Pref is the reference set power, and ∆w/R is the power given by governor
speed characteristic. The hydraulic amplifier transforms this signal Pg into valve/gate
position corresponding to a power PV.
Thus
PV(s) = (Kg/ (1+sTg)) _Pg(s).
Figure 3.7: Block Diagram Representation Of The Governor
UNIT-3 3. 11
All the individual blocks can now be connected to represent the complete ALFC loop as
Figure3.8: Block diagram representation of the ALFC

Static Power Generation
We have
∆PG(s) = kGkt/ (1+sTG)(1+sTt)[∆Pc(s)-1/R∆F(s)]
The generator is synchronized to a network of very large size. So, the speed or
frequency will be essentially independent of any changes in a power output of the
generator
ie, ∆F(s) =0
Therefore ∆PG(s) =kGkt / (1+sTg) (1+sTt)* ∆Pc(s)
Steady state response
(i)Controlled case:
To find the resulting steady change in the generator output:
Let us assume that we made a step change of the magnitude ∆P c of the speed changer
For step change, ∆Pc(s) = ∆Pc/s
∆PG(s) =kGkt/ (1+sTg) (1+sTt). ∆Pc(s)/s
s∆PG (s) =kGkt/ (1+sTg) (1+sTt). ∆Pc(s)
Applying final value theorem,
∆PG (stat) = ∆
(ii)Uncontrolled case
Let us assume that the load suddenly increases by small amount ∆P D.Consider
there is no external work and the generator is delivering a power to a single load.
Since ∆Pc=0, kgkt=1
UNIT-3 3. 12
∆PG(s) = 1/ (1+sTG) (1+sTt) [-∆F(s)/R]
For a step change ∆F(s) = ∆f/s
Therefore
∆PG(s) = 1/(1+sTG)(1+sTt)[-∆F/sR]
∆f/∆PG (stat) =-R Hz/MW
3.6.1 Steady State Performance of the ALFC Loop

In the steady state, the ALFC is in ‘open’ state, and the output is obtained by
substituting s→0 in the TF.
With s→0, Gg(s) and Gt(s) become unity, then,(note that ∆Pm =∆PT = PG =∆Pe =
∆PD;
That is turbine output = generator/electrical output = load demand)
∆Pm = ∆Pref – (1/R) ∆ω or ∆Pm = ∆Pref – (1/R)∆f
When the generator is connected to infinite bus (∆f = 0, and ∆V = 0), then ∆Pm = ∆Pref .
If the network is finite, for a fixed speed changer setting (∆Pref = 0), then
∆Pm = (1/R)∆f or∆f=RPm.
3.6.2 Concept of AGC (Supplementary ALFC Loop)
The ALFC loop shown in Fig3.8 is called the primary ALFC loop. It achieves
the primary goal of real power balance by adjusting the turbine output ∆Pm to
match the
change in load demand ∆PD. All the participating generating units contribute to
the
change in generation. But a change in load results in a steady state frequency
deviation
∆f. The restoration of the frequency to the nominal value requires an additional
control
loop called the supplementary loop. This objective is met by using integral
controller
which makes the frequency deviation zero. The ALFC with the supplementary loop is
generally called the AGC. The block diagram of an AGC is shown in Fig3.9. The
main
objectives of AGC a r e i) to regulate t h e frequency (using b o t h
primary a n d
supplementary controls); ii) and to maintain the scheduled tie-line flows. A
secondary
objective of the AGC is to distribute the required change in generation
UNIT-3 the
among 3. 13
connected generating units economically (to obtain least operating
costs).
Figure 3.9: Block diagram representation of the AGC
3.6.3 AGC in a Single Area System

In a single area system, there is no tie-line schedule to be maintained. Thus the
function of the AGC is only to bring the frequency to the nominal value. This will
be
achieved using the supplementary loop (as shown in Fig.3.9) which uses the
integral
The integral controller gain KI needs to be adjusted for satisfactory response (in terms
controller to change the reference power setting so as to change the speed set
point.
of overshoot, settling time) of the system. Although each generator will be having a
separate speed governor, all the generators in the control area are replaced by a
single equivalent generator, and the ALFC for the area corresponds to this equivalent
generator.
3.7 Dynamic Response of the One-Area System
`Now we are going to study the effect of a disturbance in the system derived above.
Both loss of generation and loss of load can be simulated by imposing a positive or negative
step input on the variable Pload. A change of the set value of the system frequency f0 is not
considered as this is not meaningful in real power systems. From the block diagram in Figure
3.9 it is straightforward to derive the transfer function between
UNIT-3 3. 14
In order to calculate an equivalent time constant Teq, Tt is put to 0. This can be done since
for realistic systems the turbine controller time constant Tt is much smaller than the time
constant
3.8 AGC IN A MULTI AREA SYSTEM

In an interconnected (multi area) system, there will be one ALFC loop for each
control area (located at the ECC of that area). They are combined as
shown in
Fig2.10 for the interconnected system operation. For a total change in load of
∆PD,
the steady state Consider a two area system as depicted in Figure 3.10.
The two
secondary frequency controllers, AGC1 and AGC2, will adjust the power
reference
values of the generators participating in the AGC. In an N-area system, there
UNIT-3
are N 3. 15
controllers AGCi, one for each area i.

Figure 3.10.Two area system with AGC

A block diagram of such a controller is given in Figure 4.2. A common way is to implement
this as a proportional-integral (PI) controller:
Deviation in frequency in the two areas is given by
−∆PD
∆f=∆ω1=∆ω2=β1+β2 where
β1= D1+1/R1
β2= D2+1/R2
Expression for tie-line flow in a two-area interconnected system Consider a change in

load ∆PD1 in area1. The steady state frequency deviation ∆f is the same for both the
areas. That is ∆f = ∆f1 = ∆f2. Thus, for area1, we have
∆Pm1 - ∆PD1 - ∆P12 = D1∆f
Where, Area 2 ∆P12 is the tie line power flow from Area1to Area 2; and for
∆Pm2 + ∆P12 = D2∆f
The mechanical power depends on regulation. Hence
∆Pm1= -�∆f ∆Pm2= -�∆f

1 2
Substituting these equations, yields
(1/R1+ D1) ∆f =-∆P12- ∆Pm
(1/R2+ D2) ∆f =-∆P12- ∆Pm
UNIT-3 3. 16
Figure 3.11 A G C for a multi-area operation
Solving for ∆f, we get
∆f= -∆PD1/ β1 + β2
β2
∆P12= -∆PD1
β1+β2
Where, 1 and 2 are the composite frequency response characteristic of Area1 and Area 2
respectively. An increase of load in area1 by ∆PD1 results in a frequency reduction in both
areas and a tie-line flow of ∆P12. A positive ∆P12 is indicative of flow from Area1 to Area
2 while a negative ∆P12 means flow from Area 2 to Area1. Similarly, for a change in Area 2
load by ∆PD2, we have
∆f= -∆PD2/ β1 + β2
β1
∆P12= -∆PD2
β1+β2
UNIT-3 3. 17
3.9. DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL

LOOPS
It has been shown that the load frequency control system posses inherently steady
state error for a step input. Applying the usual procedure, the dynamic response of the
control
loop can be evaluated so that the initial response also can be seen for any overshoot.
For this purpose considering the relatively larger time constant of the power system
the governor action can be neglected, treating it as instantaneous action. Further the
turbine
generator dynamics also may be neglected at the first instant to derive a simple
expression for
the time response.
It has been proved that
For a step load change of magnitude k
Neglecting the governor action and turbine dynamics
Applying partial fractions
UNIT-3 3. 18
3.10. INTERCONNECTED OPERATION

Power systems are interconnected for economy and continuity of power supply. For
the interconnected operation incremental efficiencies, fuel costs. Water
availability,
generation limits, tie line capacities, spinning reserve allocation and area
commitment’s are
important considerations in preparing load dispatch schedules.
3.10.1. Flat Frequency Control of lnter- connected Stations
Consider two generating stations connected by a tie line as in Fig3.12.For a load
increment on station B, the kinetic energy of the generators reduces to absorb the
same.
Generation increases in both the stations A and B, and frequency will be less than
normal at
the end of the governor response period. The load increment will be supplied partly
by A and
partly by B. The tie line power flow will change thereby. If a frequency controller is
placed at
B, then it will shift the governor characteristic at B parallel to itself as shown in Fig
and the
frequency will be restored to its normal value fs' reducing the change in generation
in A to Figure 3.12.Two area with tie line power
zero.
Assumption in Analysis:
The following assumptions are made in the analysis of the two area system:
1. The overall governing characteristic of the operating units in any area can be represented
by
a linear curve of frequency versus generation.
2. The governors in both the areas start acting simultaneously to changes in their respective
areas.
3. Supplementary control devices act after the initial governor response is over
The following time instants are defined to explain the control sequence:
To=is the instant when both the areas are operating at the scheduled frequency and
Tie=line interchange and load change takes place.
tl = the instant when governor action is initiated at both A and B.
t2 =the instant when governor action ceases.
UNIT-3 3. 19
t3 =the instant when regulator action begins.

t4 = the instant when regulator action ceases.
`While the initial governor response
is the same as for the previous case, the
action of
the controller in B will force the
generation in area B to absorb the load
increment in area A.
When the controller begins to act at
t3, the governor characteristic is shifted
parallel to itself
in B till the entire load increment in
A is absorbed by B and the frequency is
restored to
normal. Thus, in this case while the
frequency is regulate on one hand, the tie-
line schedule is
not maintained on the other hand.
If area B, which is in charge of frequency regulation, is much larger than A, then load
changes in A will not appreciably affect the frequency of the system. Consequently, it
can be
said that flat frequency control is useful only when a small system is’ connected to a
much
larger system.
3.10.2. Flat Tie-Line and Flat Frequency
Control:
Since a flat frequency controller cannot provide the required control, let us consider
another controller, a tie line power flow controller located in the area. As an example,
let a
frequency controller be provided in A and a flat tie-line controller be located in area B.
The
following four possible cases are considered according to the sequence of operation of
the
controllers in areas A and B.
1. Load change in A: Sequence of operation A,
B, A , .
2. Load change in B: Sequence of operation B,
A, B , .. .
3. Load change in A: Sequence of operation B,
A, B, .. .
4. Load change in B: Sequence of operation A,
B, A,.. .
UNIT-3 3. 20
Case 1: Let a load increment take place in area A. It is assumed that following the
initial
Figure 3.13 (1) load sharing by parallel units

Case 2: Let the load increment occur in area B. The tie - line controller in B acts first
following the initial governor response at t3 and increases the generation in B ti II the load
increment is completely absorbed. At the instant t5, the frequency controller in A finds that
the conditions are normal and no regulating action is needed. The load increment in B is
absorbed by the generation in B itself.
Figure 3.13(2) load sharing by parallel units
Case 3: Load change occurs in A and the controller in B acts first. The initial governor
response which begins at the instant t1 ceases at t2. The tie line controller in B begins and
completes its action before the frequency regulator at A takes control. During this period of
control action, i.e. t3-t4 by the tie line regulator the frequency decreases further than it was at
the end of the governor action period while the tie line power schedule is maintained.
UNIT-3 3. 21
Figure 3.13(3) load sharing by parallel units

Case 4: Finally consider the load increment to have taken place in area B. Let us assume that
the frequency controller in A starts and completes its action the tie-line - controller in B starts
functioning. The response to governor and controller action is show in Fig. The flat
frequency controller at A increases the generation in A to correct the frequency by shifting
the characteristic parallel to itself upwards; The generation in A and hence the tie line power
from A to B increases. At ts' when the tie-line controller takes over the control, it will find
excessive power flow from A to B and to keep it at the scheduled value, it increases the
generation in B. While doing so, the generation in A gets reduced and the tie line power flow
to B is also reduced. Finally, when the frequency controller begins to act in A at t8 neither the
tie-line power schedule nor the frequency is normal. The system starts oscillating and no
regulation is feasible. It can be seen from the above analysis that if one of the regulators is
sluggish in any area where changes in power demand take place, than other regulators, flat
tie-line flat frequency regulator strategy cannot assist in getting the desired control.
UNIT-3 3. 22
3.10.3. Tie-Line Bias Control:

One way to overcome this problem is to make the flat tie-line controller responsive to
frequency changes also. That is, the flat tie-line controller is to be biased so that we
obtain a
tie-line bias controller. With this type of controller, the regulator does not act to hold a
constant tie-line interchange regardless of system frequency, but instead allows the tie
line
schedule to deviate from the normal in adjustable proportion to frequency deviations
from the
rated value. In principle, the tie line bias controller in an area endeavors to take action
for
changes in load in its own precincts, while taking no cognizance of the same
for other
interconnected areas.
Figure 3.14 Tie-Line Bias Control
The point of intersection of both the characteristics is the only point of operation
where the system, frequency and tie line schedule can be maintained at the normal values. As
in the previous control strategy, all the four possible cases of operation are discussed. Let
UNIT-3 3. 23
area A be equipped with a flat frequency controller and area B be provided with a tie-line
bias controller
3.10.4. Two Area Systems - Tie-Line Power Model:
Figure3.15. Two Area Systems - Tie-Line Power
Consider two inter connected areas as shown in figure operating at the same frequency fl
while a power Power flow from area I to area 2
let V1 and V 2 be the voltage magnitudes
𝛿 1, 𝛿 2 voltage phase angles at the two ends of the tie-line
While P flows from area I to area 2 then,
Where X is the reactance of the line. If the angles change by f1o1, and f102 due to load
changes in areas I and 2 respectively. Then, the tie-line power changes by
UNIT-3 3. 24
Block diagram for tie-line power
3.10.5. Dynamic Response:

Let us now turn our attention during the transient period for the sake of simplicity. We
shall assume the two areas to be identical .Further we shall be neglecting the time
constants
of generators and turbines as they are negligible as compared to the time constants of
power
systems. The equation may be derived for both controlled and uncontrolled cases.
There are
four equations with four variables, to be determined for given PDl and PD2. The
dynamic
response can be obtained; even though it is a little bit involved. For simplicity assume
that the
two areas are equal. Neglect the governor and turbine dynamics, which means
that the
dynamics of the system under study is much slower than the fast acting turbine-
governor
system in a relative sense. Also assume that the load does not change with
frequency (D, =
D2 = D = 0).
UNIT-3 3. 25
We obtain under these assumptions the following relations
Note that both K and ro2 are positive. From the roots of the characteristic equation we
notice that the system is stable and damped. The frequency of the damped oscillations is
given by ��𝑜 Since Hand f o are constant, the frequency of oscillations depends
upon the regulation parameter R. Low R gives high K and high damping and vice versa
.We thus conclude from the preceding analysis that the two area system, just as in the case
of a single area system in the uncontrolled mode, has a steady state error but to a lesser extent
and the tie
line power deviation and frequency deviation exhibit oscillations that are damped out later.
UNIT-3 3. 26
QUESTION BANK
PART A
1. What is the necessity for frequency constancy in a power system?

2. What is the need for frequency regulation?
3. Explain basic MW- frequency control loop.
4. Explain basic Q- voltage control loop.
5. What is the function of load frequency control?
6. What is meant by control area?
7. What is area control error?
8. Define inertia constant.
9. List the advantage & disadvantage of multi area operation.
10. What is speed governor?
11. State necessities to put alternators in parallel.
12. What is the basic role of ALFC?
PART-B
1. What are the components of speed governor system of an alternator? Derive its transfer
function with an aid of a block diagram &explain.
2. Two Synchronous generators operating in parallel .Their capacities are 300MW & 400MW.
The drop characteristics of their governor are 4% &5% from no load to full load .Assuming
that the generators are operating at 50HZ at no load, how would be a load of 600MW shared
between them. What will be the system frequency at this load? Assume free governor
actions.
3. Derive the transfer function model and draw the block diagram for a single control area
provided with governor system. From the transfer function derive the expression for steady
state
frequency error for a step load change. (OR)Explain the static & dynamic response of single
area
system.
4. Derive & explain for the transfer function of two area load frequency control system
modelling with static and dynamic response of uncontrolled case
5. Derive & explain for the two area load frequency control with tie line bias control
6. Develop the state variable model of a single area system and state the advantages of
a model
UNIT-3 3. 27
UNIT-IV
SYSTEM
CONTROL
REACTIVE POWER
VOLTAGE CONTROL
UNIT-IV 4. 1
CONTENTS
TECHNICAL TERMS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 REACTIVE POWER
4.3 GENERATION
AND
4.3.1 Synchronous Generator
ABSORPTION OF
REACTIVE
4.3.2 Synchronous Compensator
POWER
4.3.3 Capacitance and Inductive Component
4.4 METHODS OF VOLTAGE CONTROL
4.4.1 Reactors
4.4.2 Shunt Capacitor Series
4.4.3 Capacitor Synchronous
4.4.4 Compensator Static VAR
4.4.5 Compensator
4.5 TYPES OF SVC
4.6 APPLICATION OF STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR
4.7 EXCITATION SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
4.8 ELEMENTS OF EXCITATION SYSTEM
4.9 TYPES OF EXCITATION SYSTEM
4.9.1 Static Excitation System
4.9.2 Brushless Excitation System
4.9.3 AC Excitation System
4.9.4 Excitation System
4.10 RECENT DEVELOPMENT AND FUTURE TRENDS
4.11 MODELING OF EXCITATION SYSTEM
4.12 STEADY STATE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
4.13 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR
CIRCUIT
UNIT-IV 4. 2
TECHNICAL TERMS
Regulator: Process and amplifies input control signals to alevel and form appropriate
for control of the exciter. This includes both regulating and excitation system
stabilizing function.
Power Exchange: The entity that will establish a competitive spot market for electric
power through day- and/or hour-ahead auction of generation and demand bids.
Exciter: provides dc power to the synchronous machine field winding constituting the
power stage of the excitation system.
Prime Mover: The engine, turbine, water wheel, or similar machine that drives an
electric generator; or, for reporting purposes, a device that converts energy to
electricity directly (e.g., photovoltaic solar and fuel cell(s)).
Regulation: The governmental function of controlling or directing economic entities
through the process of rulemaking and adjudication
Reserve Margin (Operating): The amount of unused available capability of an
electric power system at peak load for a utility system as a percentage of total
capability.
Restructuring: The process of replacing a monopoly system of electric utilities with
competing sellers, allowing individual retail customers to choose their electricity
supplier but still receive delivery over the power lines of the local utility. It includes
the reconfiguration of the vertically-integrated electric utility.
Power system stabilizer: Provides an additional input signal to the regulator to damp
power system oscillation;
Revenue: The total amount of money received by a firm from sales of its products
and/or services, gains from the sales or exchange of assets, interest and dividends
earned on investments, and other increases in the owner's equity except those arising
from capital adjustments.
Substation: Facility equipment that switches, changes, or regulates electric voltage.
Demand (Electric): The rate at which electric energy is delivered to or by a system,
part of a system, or piece of equipment, at a given instant or averaged over any
designated period of time.
UNIT-IV 4. 3
4.1. INTRODUCTION
There has been a very large effort to understand reactive power and voltage control
issues in power systems in the last 15 years .While this work has produced a
significant
volume of results that explain various phenomena and propose potential
solutions to
problems, much of it has not been taken to the stage of useful application software and
hardware in actual power systems. In addition, there remain serious issues of how
traditional
controls impact the interaction between the flow of real and reactive power on a
system level
when an objective Might be to maximize real power transfer capabilities. There has
been a
strong temptation to try and separate the voltage/MVAR problems with the angle/MW
problems. While this separation is valuable because it allows decoupling that might be
useful
in some computational algorithms and in understanding fundamental phenomena, this
separation cannot be made when systems are stressed to their physical limitations. On
the
contrary, the interaction between real and reactive power (and voltage
magnitudes and
4.2. REACTIVE POWER
angles) becomes very complex under these extreme conditions. This chapter begins
with anReactive power is an odd topic in AC (Alternating Current) power systems, and it's
introduction to reactive
usually explained power
with vector and howoritphase-shift
mathematics relates tosine
voltage control.However,
wave graphs. This is
followed
a non- by
several examples
math verbal that illustrate
explanation problems
is possible. which
Note that remainpower
Reactive in the
onlyoperations
becomes
environment of
important when
electric powerload"
an "electrical systems.
or a home appliance contains coils or capacitors. If the electrical
load
behaves purely as a resistor, (such as a heater or incandescent bulb for example,) then
the
device consumes "real power" only. Reactive power and "power factor" can be
ignored, and
it can be analyzed using an AC version of Ohm's law. Reactive power is simply this:
when a
coil or capacitor is connected to an AC power supply, the coil or capacitor stores
electrical
energy during one-fourth of an AC cycle. But then during the next quarter-cycle, the
coil or
capacitor dumps all the stored energy back into the distant AC power supply.
UNIT-IVIdeal coils and capacitors consume no electrical energy, yet they create a significant 4. 4
electric current. This is very different from a resistor which genuinely consumes
electrical
then electrical energy will periodically return to the power plant, and it will flow back and
forth across the power lines. This leads to an extra current in the power lines, a current which
heats the power lines, but which isn't used to provide energy to the appliance. The coil or
capacitor causes electrical energy to begin "sloshing" back and forth between the appliance
and the distant AC
Generator. Electric companies must install heavier wires to tolerate the excess current,
and they will charge extra for this "unused" energy. This undesired "energy sloshing"
effect
can be eliminated. If an electrical load contains both a coil and capacitor, and if their
resonant
frequency is adjusted to exactly 60Hz, then the coil and capacitor like magic will
begin to
behave like a pure resistor. The "energy sloshing" still occurs, but now it's all
happening
between the coil and capacitor, and not in the AC power lines. So, if your appliance
contains
a large coil induction motor, you can make the motor behave as a pure resistor, and
reduce
the current in the power lines by connecting the right value of capacitance across the
motor
coil. Why is reactive power so confusing? Well, the math is daunting if not entirely
obscure.
And the concept of "imaginary power" puts many people off. But this is not
the
4.3.only
GENERATION AND ABSORPTION OF REACTIVE POWER
problem. Unfortunately
4.3.1. Synchronous most of us are taught in grade school that an electric current is
Generators:
a flow
Synchronous machines can be made to generate or absorb reactive power depending
of energy, and that energy flows back and forth in AC power lines. This is completely
wrong. upon the excitation (a form of generator control) applied. The ability to supply
reactive power
In fact the energy flows constantly forward, going from source to load. It's only the
charges is determined by the short circuit ratio.
4.3.2.
of the Synchronous Compensators:
metal wires which flow back
and forth.
Certain smaller generators, once run up to speed and synchronized to the system, can
be declutched from their turbine and provide reactive power without producing real power.
4.3.3. Capacitive and Inductive Compensators:
These are devices that can be connected to the system to adjust voltage levels .A
capacitive compensator produces an electric field thereby generating reactive power An
inductive compensator produces a magnetic field to absorb reactive power. Compensation
UNIT-IV 4. 5
devices are available as either capacitive or inductive alone or as a hybrid to provide both
generation and absorption of reactive power.
1. Overhead lines and underground cables, when operating at the normal system voltage, both
produce strong electric fields and so generate reactive power.
2. When current flows through a line or cable it produces a magnetic field which absorbs
reactive power.
3. A lightly loaded overhead line is a net generator of reactive power while a heavily loaded
line is a net absorber of reactive power.
4. In the case of cables designed for use at 275 or 400kV the reactive power generated by the
electric field is always greater than the reactive power absorbed by the magnetic field and so
cables are always net generators of reactive power.
5. Transformers always absorb reactive power.
4.4. METHODS OF VOLTAGE CONTROL

4.4.1. Reactors:
Inductive reactors absorb reactive power and may be used in circuits, series or shunt
connected, while series connected reactors are used to limit fault currents, shunt
reactors are
used for var control. Reactors installed at line ends and intermediate substations can
compensate up to 70% of charging power while the remaining 30% power at no-load
can be
provided by the under excited operation of the generator. With increase in load,
generator
excitation may be increased with reactors gradually cut-out. Figure shows some
typical shunt
reactor arrangements.
Figure 4.1: Typical Shunt Reactor
4.4.2. Shunt Capacitors:

Capacitors produce var and may be connected in series or shunt in the system. Series
capacitors compensate the line reactance in long overhead lines and thus improve the stability
UNIT-IV 4. 6
limit. However, they give rise to additional problems like high voltage transients, sub-
synchronous resonance, etc. Shunt capacitors are used for reactive compensation. Simplicity
and low cost are the chief considerations for using shunt capacitor. Further, for expanding
systems additions can be made. Fig. shows the connected of shunt capacitors through the
tertiary of a transformer.
Figure 4.2: Shunt capacitor
4.4.3. Series capacitors:

Here the capacitors are connected in series with the line. The main aim is to reduce
the inductive reactance between supply point and the load. The major disadvantage of
the
method is, whenever short circuit current flows through the capacitor, protective
devices like
spark gaps and non linear resistors are to be in corporated. Phasor diagram for a
line with
series capacitor is shown in the figure (b).
Figure 4.3: a) Series capacitor b) Phasor diagram

Relative merits between shunt and series capacitors.
1. If the load var requirement is small, series capacitors are of little help.
UNIT-IV 4. 7
2. If the voltage drop is the limiting factor, series capacitors are effective; also to some extent
the voltage fluctuations can be evened.
3. If the total line reactance is high, series capacitors are very effective and stability is
improved.
4. With series capacitors the reduction in line current is small, hence if the thermal
considerations limits the current, little advantage is from this, so shunt compensation is to be
used.
4.4.4. Synchronous compensators:
A synchronous compensator is a synchronous motor running without a mechanical

load and depending on the excitation level; it can either absorb or generate reactive power.
When used with a voltage regulator the compensator can automatically run overexcited at
times of high loads and under excited at light loads. A typical connection of a compensator is
shown in the figure along with the associated voltage – var output characteristics
A great advantage of the method is the flexible operation for all load
conditions. Being a rotating machine, its stored energy is useful for riding through transient
disturbances, including voltage drops.
Figure4.4:Synchronous Compensator
4.4.5. Static VAR compensators:
In Recent years reactive compensation of charging power is made feasible with the
application of 3-phase, thyristor, and power controller circuits with automatic
control
functions.
UNIT-IV 4. 8
Figure4.5: Statin VAR Compensator
The term static var compensator is applied to a number of static var compensation
devices for use in shunt reactive control. These devices consist of shunt connected, static
reactive element (linear or non linear reactors and capacitors) configured into a var
compensating system. Some possible configurations are shown in above Figure. Even though
the capacitors and reactors in are shown in figure connected to the low voltage side of a
down transformer, the capacitor banks may be distributed between high and low voltage
buses. The capacitor bank often includes, in part, harmonic filters which prevent the
harmonic currents from flowing in the transformer and the high voltage system. Filters for the
5th and 7th harmonics are generally provided. The thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) is
operated on the low voltage bus. In another form of the compensator illustrated in Figure the
reactor compensator is connected to the secondary of a transformer.
Figure 4.6: Reactor Compensator

With this transformer, the reactive power can be adjusted to
anywhere between 10% to the
rated value. With a capacitor bank provided with steps, a full
control range from capacitive to
inductive power can be obtained. The reactor's transformer is
directly connected to the line,
so that no circuit breaker is needed.
The primary winding is star connected with neutral grounded, suitable to the thyristor
network. The secondary reactor is normally nonexistent, as it is more economical to
design
UNIT-IV 4. 9
the reactor transformer with 200% leakage impedance between primary and
secondary
windings. The delta connected tertiary winding will effectively compensate the triple
harmonics. The capacitor bank is normally subdivided and connected to the substation bus
bar via one circuit breaker per sub bank. The regulator generates firing pulses for the thyristor
network in such a way that the reactive power required to meet the control objective at the
primary side of the compensator is obtained. The reactor transformer has a practically linear
characteristic from no load to full load condition. Thus, even under all stained over voltages;
hardly any harmonic content is generated due to saturation. The transformer core has non
ferromagnetic .Gaps to the required linearity.
The following requirements are to be borne in mind while designing a compensator.

1. Reaction should be possible, fast or slow, whenever demanded. No switching of capacitor
should take place at that time to avoid additional transients in the system. Commutation from
capacitor to reactor and vice versa should be fast.
2. No switching of the capacitors at the high voltage bus bar, so that no higher frequency
Transients is produced at EHV level.
3. Elimination of higher harmonics on the secondary side and blocking them from entering
the system.
In a three phase system the thyristor controlled inductors are normally delta connected as
shown in Figure to compensate unbalanced loads and the capacitors may be star or delta
connected
Figure 4.7: Unbalanced loads

In the thyristor controlled reactor, the inductive reactance is
controlled by the thyristors. For a
limited range of operation the relationship between the
inductive current iL and the applied
voltage V is represented in Figure. As the inductance is varied,
the susceptance varies over a
range within the limits B Lmin and BLmax (corresponding to XLmax
and XLmin) while the voltage
UNIT-IV
Changes by v volts. 4. 10
Figure 4.7.1: Unbalanced loads
The current flowing in the inductance would be different in each half cycle, varying
with the conduction angle such that each successive half cycle is a smaller segment of a sine
wave. The fundamental component of inductor current is then reduced to each case. Quick
control can be exercised within one half cycles, just by giving a proper step input to the firing
angle control Static var compensators when installed reduce the voltage swings at the rolling
mill and power system buses in drive system applications. They compensate for the average
reactive power requirements and improve power factor.
Electric arc furnaces impose extremely difficult service requirements on electrical
power systems since the changes in arc furnace load impedance are rapid. Random and
non
symmetrical. The three phases of a static var compensator can be located
independently so
that it compensates for the unbalanced reactive load of the furnace and the thyristor
controller
will respond quickly in order to minimize the voltage fluctuations or voltage flicker
seen by
the
system.
Figure 4.8: Application of the static VAR compensator
UNIT-IV 4. 11
Thus, the furnace characteristics are made more acceptable to the power system by the static
var compensator. Above figure shows the application of the static var compensator to an arc
furnace installation for reactive power compensation at the HV bus level.
4.5. TYPES OF SVC

1. Variable impedance type
2. Current source type
3. Voltage source type
The followings are the basic types of reactive power control elements which makes all or
parts of SVC
Saturated reactor
1. Thyristor controlled Reactor
2. Thyristor switched capacitor
3. Thyristor Switched Reactor
4. Thyristor controlled Transformer
4.6. APPLICATION OF STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR
 Connected to the power system, to regulate the transmission voltage ("Transmission

SVC")
 Connected near large industrial loads, to improve power quality ("Industrial SVC")
4.7. EXCITATION SYSTEMS REQUIREMENTS

1. Meet specified response criteria.
2. Provide limiting and protective functions are required to prevent damage to itself, the
generator, and other equipment.
3. Meet specified requirements for operating flexibility
4. Meet the desired reliability and availability, by incorporating the necessary level of
redundancy and internal fault detection and isolation capability.
4.8. ELEMENTS OF EXCITATION SYSTEM

Exciter: provides dc power to the synchronous machine field winding constituting the
power stage of the excitation system.
UNIT-IV 4. 12
Regulator: Process and amplifies input control signals to a level and form appropriate for
control of the exciter. This includes both regulating and excitation system stabilizing
function.
Terminal voltage transducer and load compensator: Senses generator terminal

voltage, rectifier and filters it to dc quantity, and compares it with a reference which
represents the desired terminal voltage.
Power system stabilizer: provides an additional input signal to the regulator to damp
power system oscillation.
Limiters and protective circuits: These include a wide array of control and protective
function which ensure that the capability limits of the exciter and synchronous generator
are not exceeded.
Figure 4.9: Schematic picture of a synchronous machine with excitation system with
several control, protection, and supervisory functions.
4.9. TYPES OF EXCITATION SYSTEM

Today, a large number of different types of exciter systems are used. Three main
types can be distinguished:
• DC excitation system, where the exciter is a DC generator, often on the same axis
as the rotor of the synchronous machine.
• AC excitation system, where the exciter is an AC machine with rectifier.
• Static excitation system, where the exciting current is fed from a
controlled rectifier that gets its power either directly from the generator terminals or
from the
UNIT-IV 4. 13
power plant’s auxiliary power system, normally containing batteries. In the latter case,
the synchronous machine can be started against an unenergised net, “black start”. The
batteries are usually charged from the net.
Block Schematic of Excitation Control:

A typical excitation control system is shown in Fig. The terminal voltage of the
alternator is sampled, rectified and compared with a reference voltage; the difference
is
amplified and fed back to the exciter field winding to change the excitation current.
Block Diagram of excitation system:
Figure 4.10: Block Diagram of Excitation System

4.9.1. Static Excitation System:
In the static excitation system, the generator field is fed from a thyristor network
shown in Fig. It is just sufficient to adjust the thyristor firing angle to vary the
excitation
level. A major advantage of such a system is that, when required the field voltage can
be
varied through a full range of positive to negative values very rapidly with the
ultimate
benefit of generator Voltage regulation during transient disturbances. The thyristor
network
consists of either 3-phase fully controlled or semi controlled bridge rectifiers. Field
suppression resistor dissipates Energy in the field circuit while the field breaker
ensures field
isolation during generator faults.
Figure 4.11: Static Excitation System
UNIT-IV 4. 14
4.9.2. Brushless Excitation Scheme:
Figure 4.12: Brushless Excitation Scheme:

In the brushless excitation system of an alternator with rotating armature and
stationary field is employed as the main exciter. Direct voltage for the generator
excitation is
obtained by rectification through a rotating, semiconductor diode network which is
mounted
on the generator shaft itself. Thus, the excited armature, the diode network and the
generator
field are rigidly connected in series. The advantage of this method of excitation is that
the
moving contacts such as slip rings and brushes are completely eliminated thus
offering
smooth and maintenance-free operation.
A permanent-magnet generator serves as the power source for the exciter field. The
output of the permanent magnet generator is rectified with thyristor network and is
applied to
the exciter field. The voltage regulator measures the output or terminal voltage,
compares it
with a set reference and utilizes the error signal, if any, to control the gate pulses of the
thyristor network.
4.9.3. AC Excitation system:
Figure 4.13: Ac Excitation Systems
UNIT-IV 4. 15
4.9.3.1. Exciter and Voltage Regulator:

The function of an exciter is to increase the excitation current for voltage drop and decrease
the same for voltage rise. The voltage change is defined
Where V1 is the terminal voltage and Vref is the reference voltage.

Exciter ceiling voltage: It is defined as the maximum voltage that may be attained by
an exciter with specified conditions of load.
Exciter response: It is the rate of increase or decrease of the exciter voltage.
When a change in this voltage is demanded. As an example consider the response curve
shown in Figure.
Figure 4.14 Exciter Response

Exciter builds up: The exciter build up depends upon the
field resistance and the charging of
its value by cutting or adding. The greatest possible control
effort is the complete shorting of
the field rheostat when maximum current value is reached
in the field circuit. This can be
done by closing the contactor.
Figure 4.15: AC excitation operations
When the exciter is operated at rated speed at no load, the record of voltage as function of
time with a step change that drives the exciter to its ceiling voltage is called the exciter build
up curve. Such a response curve is show in Figure.4.14
UNIT-IV 4. 16
Figure 4.16: Response curve
SCR
Response Conventional
exciter
ratio Exciter
0.5 1.25-1.35 1.2

1.0 1.4-1.5 1.2-1.25
1.5 1.55-1.65 1.3-1.4
2.0 1.7-1.8 1.45-1.55
4.0 2.0-2.1
Table 4.1 Comparison between Exciters
In general the present day practice is to use 125V excitation up to IOMVA units and
250V systems up to 100MVA units. Units generating power beyond IOOMVA have
excitation system voltages variedly. Some use 350V and 375V system while some go up to
500V excitation system.
4.9.4. DC Excitation System

The excitation system of this category utilize dc generator as source of excitation
power and provide current to the rotor of the synchronous machine through slip ring.
The
exciter may be driven by a motor or the shaft of the generator. It may be either self
excited or
separately excited. When separately excited, the exciter field is supplied by a pivot
exciter
comprising a permanent magnet generator. Below figure a simplified
schematic
representation of a typical dc excitation system. It consists of a dc commutator
exciter
UNIT-IVwhich 4. 17
supplies direct current to the main generator field through slip ring.
Figure 4.17: DC Excitation System

Dc machine having two sets of brush 90 electrical degree apart, one set on its direct
(d) axis and the other set on its quadrature (q) axis. The control field winding is
located on
the d axis. A compensating winding in series with the d axis armature current, thereby
cancelling negative feedback of the armature reaction. The brushes on the q axis are
shorted,
and very little control field power is required to produce a large current in the
q axis
armature. The q axis current is supplied mechanically by the motor.
4.10 RECENT DEVELOPMENT AND FUTURE TRENDS
The advances in excitation system over the last 20 years have been influenced by
development in solid state electronics. Development in analogue integrated
circuitry has
made it possible to easily implemented complex control strategies.
The latest development in excitation system has been the introduction of digital
technology. Thyristor continue to be used for the power stage. The control, protection,
and
logic function have been implemented digitally, essentially duplicating the
function
previously provided by analog circuitry.
4.11 MODELING OF EXCITATION SYSTEM
Mathematical model of excitation system are essential for the assessment of desired
performance requirement, for the design and coordination of supplementary
control and
The voltage of the generator is proportional to the speed and excitation (flux) of
protective circuits, and for system stability studies related to the planning and purpose
the generator. The speed being constant, the excitation is used to control the
of
study.
UNIT-IV Generator Voltage Control System 4. 18
voltage. Therefore, the voltage control system is also called as excitation control
system or automatic voltage regulator (AVR).
For the alternators, the excitation is provided by a device (another machine or a
static device) called exciter. For a large alternator the exciter may be required to supply a
field current of as large as 6500A at 500V and hence the exciter is a fairly large
machine. Depending on the way the dc supply is given to the field winding of the alternator
(which is on the rotor), the exciters are classified as: i) DC Exciters; ii) AC Exciters;
and iii) Static Exciters. Accordingly, several standard block diagrams are developed by
the IEEE working group to represent the excitation system. A schematic of an
excitation control system is shown in Fig4.16
Figure 4.18: A schematic of Excitation (Voltage) Control System.
A simplified block diagram of the generator voltage control system is

shown in Fig2.2. The generator terminal voltage Vt is compared with a voltage
reference Vref to obtain a voltage error signal ∆V. This signal is applied to the
voltage regulator shown as a block with transfer function KA/ (1+TAs). The
output of the regulator is then applied to exciter shown with a block of transfer
function Ke/ (1+Tes). The output of the exciter Efd is then applied to the field
winding which adjusts the generator terminal voltage. The generator field can be
represented by a block with a transfer function KF/(1+sTF). The total transfer
function
UNIT-IV 4. 19
The stabilizing compensator shown in the diagram is used to improve the

dynamic response of the exciter. The input to this block is the exciter voltage and
the output is a stabilizing feedback signal to reduce the excessive overshoot.
Figure 4.19: A simplified block diagram of Voltage (Excitation) Control System.
Performance of AVR loop

The purpose of the AVR loop is to maintain the generator terminal voltage with
in acceptable values. A static accuracy limit in percentage is specified for the
AVR, so
that the terminal voltage is maintained within that value. For example, if the
accuracy limit
is 4%, then the terminal voltage must be maintained within 4% of the base voltage.
4.12. STEADY STATE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
The control loop must regulate the output voltage VI so that the error is made equal to
zero. It is also imperative that the response must be reasonably fast, yet not cause any
instability problem.
The performance of the AVR loop is measured by its ability to regulate the
terminal voltage of the generator within prescribed static accuracy limit with an
acceptable speed of response. Suppose the static accuracy limit is denoted by Ac in
UNIT-IV 4. 20
percentage with reference to the nominal value. The error voltage is to be less than
(Ac/100)∆|V|ref.
From the block diagram, for a steady state error voltage ∆e;
∆e=∆ [V]ref -∆ [V]t =∆ [V]ref
∆e=∆ [V]ref -∆ [V]t =∆ [V]ref- ∆ [V]ref
=1- ∆ [V]ref
For constraint input condition (s-0)
∆e=1- ∆ [V]ref
= 1- ∆ [V]ref
= ∆ [V]ref
= ∆ [V]ref
K= G (0) is the open loop gain of the AVR .Hence

∆ [V]ref =∆ [V]ref
Larger the overall gain of the forward block gain K smaller is the steady state error. But too
large a gain K cans instability.
UNIT-IV 4. 21
4.13. DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF VOLTAGE REGULATION CONTROL:

Consider
The response depends upon the roots of the characteristic eqn. 1 + G(S) = o.
As there are three time constants, we may write the three roots as S1, S2 and S3. A typical
root locus plot is shown in Figure
Figure4.19: Root locus
From the plot, it can be observed that at gain higher than Kc the control loop becomes ln
stable.
UNIT-IV 4. 22
QUESTION BANK
PART- A
1. List the various components in AVR loop.

2. What is the significance of stability compensation in AVR loop?
3. What is meant by stability compensation?
4. Distinguish between on-load and off-load tap changing.
5. Compare series and shunt capacitors.
6. What are requirement of voltage and reactive power control?
7. Define excitation system.
8. What is mean by AVR root loci?
9. State the elements of an excitation system.
10. What are the different types of static VAR compensators?
11. What is SVC? When and why it is used?
12. What is static VAR compensator?
PART-B
1. Derive the relation between voltage, power
& reactive power at a node for applications
in
2.
power system control.
3.
Discuss generation and absorption of reactive power.
4.
Discuss about the various methods of voltage control.
5.
Explain different types of static VAR compensators with a phasor diagram.
6.
Explain the A.C and D.C excitation system.
Draw the circuit diagram for a typical excitation system and derive the transfer
function model and draw the block diagram (OR) Draw the diagram of a typical
automatic voltage regulator (AVR) & develop its block diagram representation. (OR)
7.
the typical brushless AVR with static and dynamic performance of AVR loop.
Explain the injection of reactive power by switched capacitors to maintain acceptable
voltage profile & to minimize transmission loss in a power system.
UNIT-IV 4. 23
UNIT – V
COMPUTER CONTROL OF
POWER SYSTEMS
UNIT-V 5. 1
CONTENTS
TECHNICAL TERMS
5.1. INTRODUCTION:
5.2. ENERGY CONTROL CENTRE
5.2.1. Functions of Control Centre:
5.2.2. ECC Components
5.2.3. Operation of control centre
5.3. SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION (SCADA)
5.3.1. Functions of SCADA Systems
5.3.2. Communication technologies
5.3.2.1. SCADA requires communication between Master control station and Remote
control station
5.4. ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (EMS)
5.4.1. Functionality Power EMS
5.4.2. Power System Data Acquisition and Control
5.5. NETWORK TOPOLOGY DETERMINATION
5.6. STATE ESTIMATION
5.6.1. Power System Variables
5.7. SECURITY ANALYSIS & CONTROL
5.7.1. Security Control Function
5.7.2. System Security
5.7.3. Security Assessment
5.8. VARIOUS OPERATING STATES

QUESTION BANK
UNIT-V 5. 2
TECHNICAL TERMS
Energy Control Centre: Monitors the information continuously for the entire power system
Normal State: Total demand met by satisfying all the operating constraints
Alert State: System is in alert state if security level falls below certain level
Emergency State: Equality constraints are unchanged. This state is reached either directly
from the normal state or via the alert state
Extremis State: Occurs in the absence of any corrective action in time
Monitoring system: monitoring provides up to date information about the power system.
SCADA system: supervisory control and data acquisition system, allows a few operators to
monitor the generation and high voltage transmission systems and to take action to correct
overloads.
Distribution factors: Line outage distribution factor, generation outage distribution factor.
State estimation: State estimation is the process of assigning a value to an unknown system
statevariable based on measurements from that system according to some criteria.
Likelihood criterion: The objective is to maximize the probability that estimate the state
variable x,is the true value of the state variable vector (i.e, to maximize the P(x)=x).
Must run constraint: Some units are given a must run status during certain times of the year
for reason of voltage support on the transmission network.
Post contingency: The state of the power system after a contingency has occurred.
UNIT-V 5. 3
5.1. INTRODUCTION:
Operation in plans with automated control systems work mainly in a central control
room. In olden plants, the controls for the equipment are not centralized and the switch
board
operators control the flow of electricity from a central point, whereas, auxiliary
equipment
operation work throughout the plant, operating and monitoring valves, switches and
gauges.
Electric power systems have grown in size and complexity. Their power generation,
transmission and distribution methods and equipment have constantly improved in
performance and reliability. The power industry in nuclear plant was among the first to
use
analog controls for turbine generators and introduced the use of on-line digital control
computers. These advances were often needed because of the enormous growth in
megawatt
requirements of the power systems.
The satisfactory operating state is given by the following conditions: Frequency
within operating range, bus voltage magnitude with in specified range, current flows
on all
5.2. ENERGY CONTROL CENTRE
transmission lines within ratings, transformers and generators operate within their
The energy control center (ECC) has traditionally been the decision-center for the
ratings,
electric transmission and generation interconnected system. The ECC provides the
and no load shedding anywhere in the system.
functions
necessary for monitoring and coordinating the minute-by-minute physical and
economic
operation of the power system. In the continental U.S., there are only three
interconnected
regions: Eastern, Western, and Texas, but there are many control areas, with each
control
area having its own ECC.
Maintaining integrity and economy of an inter-connected power system requires
Most areas today
significant have a decision-making.
coordinated two-level hierarchy
Soofone
ECCs
of with the Independent
the primary functionsSystem
of the
ECC is to
Operator (ISO) performing the high-level decision-making and the transmission owner ECC
monitor
performing and regulatedecision-making.
the lower-level the physical operation of the interconnected grid.
A high-level view of the ECC is illustrated.Where we can identify the substation, the
remote terminal unit (RTU), a communication link, and the ECC which contains the energy
UNIT-V 5. 4
management system (EMS). The EMS provides the capability of converting the data received
from the substations to the types of screens observed.
In these notes we will introduce the basic components and functionalities of the ECC. Note
that there is no chapter in your text which provides this information.
5.2.1. Functions of Control Centre:

 Load forecasting - very short, short, medium, long term
 Power system planning - generation, transmission & distribution.
 Unit Commitment and maintenance Scheduling
 Security Monitoring
 State Estimation
 Economic Dispatch
 Load Frequency Control
Regional load control centre:

It decides generation allocation to various generating stations within the region on the
basics of equal incremental operating cost considering line losses are equal and
Frequency
control in the region.
Plant load control room:
It decides the allocation of generation of various units in the plant on the basis
of:
1. Equal incremented operating cost of various units
2. Minimize the reactive power flow through line so as to minimize line loss and
maintain
5.2.2. voltage
ECC levels and Frequency control in the plant.
Components
The system control
function traditionally
used in electric utility
operation consists of
three
main integrated
subsystems: the energy
management system
(EMS), the supervisory
control
and data acquisition
(SCADA), and the
communications
interconnecting the EMS
and the
UNIT-V 5. 5
SCADA (which is often
thought of as part of the
Breaker/Switch Status System Model Description Display to Operator

Indications
Network
Topology
Updated System Power flows,
program State
Electrical Model Voltages etc.,
Telemetry & Estimator
Communicatio Display to Operator
SCADA ns equipment Analog Measurements
Generation Generator Outputs Bad Measurement

Raise/Lower Alarms
Signals AGC
State Estimator
Output
Substation
RTUs Economic
Dispatch
Ca lculation
OPF
Security Contingency Analysis Contingency

Constrained OPF Selection
Overloads & Potential

Voltage Problems Overloads &
Voltage Problems
Display Alarms
Figure5.1: System control subsystems: EMS, SCADA, and Communications
We distinguish EMS from distribution management systems (DMS). Both utilize their own
SCADA, but for different functions. Whereas EMS/SCADA serves the high voltage bulk
transmission system from the ECC, the DMS/SCADA serves the low voltage, distribution
system from a distribution dispatch center. We are addressing in these notes the
EMS/SCADA.
5.2.3. Operation of control centre:

• Monitoring
• Data acquisition and Remote control
UNIT-V 5. 6
A. 3 level control
1. Turbine –governor to adjust generation to balance changing load-instantaneous
control.
2. AGC (called load frequency control (LFC)) maintains frequency and net power
interchange.
3. Economic Dispatch Control (EDC) distributes the load among the units such that fuel
cost is minimum.
B. Primary Voltage control
1. Excitation control
2. Transmission voltage control, SVC, Shunt capacitors, transformer taps…
5.3. SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION (SCADA)

There are two parts to the term SCADA Supervisory control indicates that the
operator, residing in the energy control center (ECC), has the ability to control
remote
equipment. Data acquisition indicates that information is gathered characterizing the
state of
the
Theremote equipment
monitoring and sent
equipment to the ECC
is normally for monitoring
located purposes.and is consolidated
in the substations
in what is known as the remote terminal unit (RTU). Generally, the RTUs are equipped with
microprocessors having memory and logic capability. Older RTUs are equipped with
modems to provide the communication link back to the ECC, whereas newer RTUs generally
have intranet or internet capability.
Relays located within the RTU, on command from the ECC, open or close selected
control circuits to perform a supervisory action. Such actions may include, for example,
opening or closing of a circuit breaker or switch, modifying a transformer tap setting, raising
or lowering generator MW output or terminal voltage, switching in or out a shunt capacitor or
inductor, and the starting or stopping of a synchronous condenser.
Information gathered by the RTU and communicated to the ECC includes both analog
information and status indicators. Analog information includes, for example, frequency,
voltages, currents, and real and reactive power flows. Status indicators include alarm signals
(over-temperature, low relay battery voltage, illegal entry) and whether switches and circuit
UNIT-V 5. 7
breakers are open or closed. Such information is provided to the ECC through a periodic scan
of all RTUs. A 2 second scan cycle is typical.
5.3.1. Functions of SCADA Systems

1. Data acquisition
2. Information display.
3. Supervisory Control(CBs:ON/OFF, Generator: stop/start, RAISE/LOWER command)
4. Information storage and result display.
5. Sequence of events acquisition.
6. Remote terminal unit processing.
7. General maintenance.
8. Runtime status verification.
9. Economic modeling.
10. Remote start/stop.
11. Load matching based on economics.
12. Load shedding.
 Control functions
 Control and monitoring of switching devices, tapped transformers, auxiliary devices,
etc.
 Bay-and a station-wide interlocking
 Dynamic Bus bar coloring according to their actual operational status.
 Automatic switching sequences
 Automatic functions such as load shedding, power restoration, and high speed bus bar
transfer
 Time synchronization by radio and satellite clock signal
 Monitoring functions:
 Measurement and displaying of current, voltage, frequency, active and reactive
power, energy, temperature, etc.
 Alarm functions. Storage and evaluation of time stamped events.
 Trends and archiving of measurements
 Collection and evaluation of maintenance data
 Disturbance recording and evaluation.
UNIT-V 5. 8
 Protection functions:
 Substation protection functions includes the monitoring of events like start, trip
indication and relay operating time and setting and reading of relay parameters.
 Protection of bus bars. Line feeders, transformers, generators.
 Protection monitoring (status, events, measurements, parameters, recorders)
 Adaptive protection by switch-over of the active parameter set.
5.3.2. Communication technologies
The form of communication required for SCADA is telemetry. Telemetry is the

measurement of a quantity in such a way so as to allow interpretation of that measurement at
a distance from the primary detector. The distinctive feature of telemetry is the nature of the
translating means, which includes provision for converting the measure into a representative
quantity of another kind that can be transmitted conveniently for measurement at a distance.
The actual distance is irrelevant.
Telemetry may be analog or digital. In analog telemetry, a voltage, current, or

frequency proportional to the quantity being measured is developed and transmitted on a
communication channel to the receiving location, where the received signal is applied to a
meter calibrated to indicate the quantity being measured, or it is applied directly to a control
device such as a ECC computer.
Forms of analog telemetry include variable current, pulse-amplitude, pulse-length,

and pulse-rate, with the latter two being the most common. In digital telemetry, the quantity
being measured is converted to a code in which the sequence of pulses transmitted indicates
the quantity. One of the advantages to digital telemetering is the fact that accuracy of data is
not lost in transmitting the data from one location to another. Digital telemetry requires
analog to digital (A/D) and possible digital to analog (D/A) converters, as illustrated in
Fig.5.2
The earliest form of signal circuit used for SCADA telemetry consisted of twisted pair
wires; although simple and economic for short distances, it suffers from reliability problems
due to breakage, water ingress, and ground potential risk during faults.
UNIT-V 5. 9
Computer Indicatin
g
Quantity Transducer A/D Telemeter Telemeter meter
to be converter transmitte receiver
telemetere r D/A Recordin
d converter g
Signal circuit (wire meter
line, PLC, microwave,
etc.)
Figure 5.2: Block Diagram of Telemetering System
Improvements over twisted pair wires came in the form of what is now the most
common, traditional type of telemetry mediums based on leased-wire, power-line carrier, or
microwave. These are voice grade forms of telemetry, meaning they represent
communication channels suitable for the transmission of speech, either digital or analog,
generally with a frequency range of about 300 to 3000 Hz.
5.3.2.1. SCADA requires communication between Master control station and Remote
control station:
Figure 5.3: Master and Remote station
UNIT-V 5. 10
Leased-wire means use of a standard telephone circuit; this is a convenient and

straightforward means of telemetry when it is available, although it can be unreliable, and it
requires a continual outlay of leasing expenditures. In addition, it is not under user control
and requires careful coordination between the user and the telephone company. Power-line
carrier (PLC) offers an inexpensive and typically more reliable alternative to leased-wire.
Here, the transmission circuit itself is used to modulate a communication signal at a
frequency much greater than the 60 Hz power frequency. Most PLC occurs at frequencies in
the range of 30-500 kHz. The security of PLC is very high since the communication
equipment is located inside the substations. One disadvantage of PLC is that the
communication cannot be made through open disconnects, i.e., when the transmission line is
outaged. Often, this is precisely the time when the communication signal is needed most. In
addition, PLC is susceptible to line noise and requires careful signal-to-noise ratio analysis.
Most PLC is strictly analog although digital PLC has become available from a few suppliers
during the last few years.
Microwave radio refers to ultra-high-frequency (UHF) radio systems operating above

1 GHz. The earliest microwave telemetry was strictly analog, but digital microwave
communication is now quite common for EMS/SCADA applications. This form of
communication has obvious advantages over PLC and leased wire since it requires no
physical conducting medium and therefore no right-of-way. However, line of sight clearance
is required in order to ensure reliable communication, and therefore it is not applicable in
some cases.
A more recent development has concerned the use of fiber optic cable, a technology capable
of extremely fast communication speeds. Although cost was originally prohibitive, it has now
decreased to the point where it is viable. Fiber optics may be either run inside underground
power cables or they may be fastened to overhead transmission line towers just below the
lines. They may also be run within the shield wire suspended above the transmission lines.
One easily sees that communication engineering is very important to power system
control. Students specializing in power and energy systems should strongly consider taking
communications courses to have this background. Students specializing in communication
should consider taking power systems courses as an application area.
UNIT-V 5. 11
5.4. ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (EMS)
The EMS is a software system. Most utility companies purchase their EMS from one
or more EMS vendors. These EMS vendors are companies specializing in design,
development, installation, and maintenance of EMS within ECCs. There are a number of
EMS vendors in the U.S., and they hire many power system engineers with good software
development capabilities.
During the time period of the 1970s through about 2000, almost all EMS software
applications were developed for installation on the control centers computers. An attractive
alternative today is, however, the application service provider, where the software resides on
the vendor‟s computer and control center personnel access it from the Internet. Benefits from
this arrangement include application flexibility and reliability in the software system and
reduced installation cost.
One can observe from Figure 3 that the EMS consists of 4 major functions: network model
building (including topology processing and state estimation), security assessment, automatic
generation control, and dispatch. These functions are described in more detail in the
following subsections.
Energy management is the process of monitoring, coordinating, and controlling the

generation, transmission and distribution of electrical energy. The physical plant to be
managed includes generating plants that produce energy fed through transformers to the high-
voltage transmission network (grid), interconnecting generating plants, and load centers.
Transmission lines terminate at substations that perform switching, voltage transformation,
measurement, and control. Substations at load centers transform to sub transmission and
distribution levels. These lower-voltage circuits typically operate radially, i.e., no normally
closed paths between substations through sub transmission or distribution
circuits.(Underground cable networks in large cities are an exception.)
Since transmission systems provide negligible energy storage, supply and demand
must be balanced by either generation or load. Production is controlled by turbine
governors
at generating plants, and automatic generation control is performed by control
center
computers remote from generating plants. Load management, sometimes called
demand-side
UNIT-V 5. 12
management, extends remote supervision and control to subtransmission and distribution

circuits, including control of residential, commercial, and industrial loads.
5.4.1. Functionality Power EMS:
1. System Load Forecasting-Hourly energy, 1 to 7 days.

2. Unit commitment-1 to 7days.
3. Economic dispatch
4. Hydro-thermal scheduling- up to 7 days.
5. MW interchange evaluation- with neighboring system
6. Transmission loss minimization
7. Security constrained dispatch
8. Maintenance scheduling
9. Production cost calculation
5.4.2. Power System Data Acquisition and Control

A SCADA system consists of a master station that communicates with remote
terminal units (RTUs) for the purpose of allowing operators to observe and control physical
plants. Generating plants and transmission substations certainly justify RTUs, and their
installation is becoming more common in distribution substations as costs decrease. RTUs
transmit device status and measurements to, and receive control commands and setpoint data
from, the master station. Communication is generally via dedicated circuits operating in the
range of 600 to 4800 bits/s with the RTU responding to periodic requests initiated from the
master station (polling) every 2 to 10 s, depending on the criticality of the data.
The traditional functions of SCADA systems are summarized:
• Data acquisition: Provides telemetered measurements and status information to operator.
• Supervisory control: Allows operator to remotely control devices, e.g., open and close
circuit breakers. A “select before operate” procedure is used for greater safety.
• Tagging: Identifies a device as subject to specific operating restrictions and prevents
unauthorized operation.
• Alarms: Inform operator of unplanned events and undesirable operating conditions. Alarms
are sorted by criticality, area of responsibility, and chronology. Acknowledgment may be
required.
UNIT-V 5. 13
• Logging: Logs all operator entry, all alarms, and selected information.
• Load shed: Provides both automatic and operator-initiated tripping of load in response to
system emergencies.
• Trending: Plots measurements on selected time scales.
Figure 5.4.Layers of a modern EMS.
Since the master station is critical to power system operations, its functions are
generally distributed among several computer systems depending on specific design. A dual
computer system configured in primary and standby modes is most common. SCADA
functions are listed below without stating which computer has specific responsibility.
UNIT-V 5. 14
• Manage communication circuit configuration

• Downline load RTU files
• Maintain scan tables and perform polling
• Check and correct message errors
• Convert to engineering units
• Detect status and measurement changes
• Monitor abnormal and out-of-limit conditions
• Log and time-tag sequence of events
• Detect and annunciate alarms
• Respond to operator requests to:
– Display information
– Enter data
– Execute control action
– Acknowledge alarms
Transmit control action to RTUs
• Inhibit unauthorized actions
• Maintain historical files
• Log events and prepare reports
• Perform load shedding
Automatic Generation Control
Automatic generation control
(AGC) consists of two major and
several minor functions that
operate online in realtime to
adjust the generation against
load at minimum cost. The
major
functions are load frequency
control and economic dispatch,
each of which is described
below. The minor functions are
reserve monitoring, which
assures enough reserve on the
system; interchange scheduling,
which initiates and completes
scheduled interchanges; and
other similar monitoring and
recording functions.
UNIT-V 5. 15
Load Frequency Control
Load frequency control (LFC) has to achieve three primary objectives, which are stated
The first and second objectives are met by monitoring an error signal, called area
control error (ACE), which is a combination of net interchange error and frequency error and
represents the power imbalance between generation and load at any instant. This ACE must
be filtered or smoothed such that excessive and random changes in ACE are not translated
into control action. Since these excessive changes are different for different systems, the filter
parameters have to be tuned specifically for each control area.
The filtered ACE is then used to obtain the proportional plus integral control signal.
This control signal is modified by limiters, deadbands, and gain constants that are tuned to
the particular system. This control signal is then divided among the generating units under
control by using participation factors to obtain unit control errors (UCE).
These participation factors may be proportional to the inverse of the second derivative
of the cost of unit generation so that the units would be loaded according to their costs, thus
meeting the third objective. However, cost may not be the only consideration because the
different units may have different response rates and it may be necessary to move the faster
generators more to obtain an acceptable response. The UCEs are then sent to the various units
under control and the generating units monitored to see that the corrections take place. This
control action is repeated every 2 to 6 s. In spite of the integral control, errors in frequency
and net interchange do tend to accumulate over time. These time errors and accumulated
interchange errors have to be corrected by adjusting the controller settings according to
procedures agreed upon by the whole interconnection. These accumulated errors as well as
ACE serve as performance measures for LFC.
The main philosophy in the design of LFC is that each system should follow its own
load very closely during normal operation, while during emergencies; each system should
contribute according to its relative size in the interconnection without regard to the locality of
the emergency. Thus, the most important factor in obtaining good control of a system is its
inherent capability of following its own load. This is guaranteed if the system has adequate
regulation margin as well as adequate response capability. Systems that have mainly thermal
generation often have difficulty in keeping up with the load because of the slow response of
the units.
UNIT-V 5. 16
5.5. NETWORK TOPOLOGY DETERMINATION:
The topology of the network is determined before the determination of system states using
state estimation. Network topology is done by a network configuration that establishes the
configuration of the power system network based on the telemetric breaker and switch status.
• In order to run the state estimator, we must know how the transmission lines are
connected to the load and generation buses
• Network topology program
– The program that reconfigures the electrical model
Figure.5.5. Network Topology

A simple and fast method depends on the
1. Generation shift factors
2. Line voltage distribution factors
Approximations made in Dc flow model are
1. Resistance is neglected
2. Flat voltage profile is 1 p.u
3. Q neglected
Generation shift factors:
UNIT-V 5. 17
L= Line index
I= bus index
= change in megawatt power flow on line l when a change in generation occurs at bus i
= change in generation at bus i
The ali factor represents the sensitivity of the flow on line l to a change in generation at bus i.
Distribution factors:
be the change in MW injection at jth bus
be the change in MW flow in ith line
Line outage distribution factors: Let jth line

is outaged and ∆Li is the change in flow in ith
line
LDij =
5.6. STATE ESTIMATION:

Given the topology of the system, it still remains to determine the operating
conditions, i.e., the bus voltages, load levels, and generation levels. At first
glance, this
appears to be an easy problem – just take the corresponding information from the
SCADA.
However, one must recognize the reality of data unavailability and of data error.
Data unavailability comes from two sources. First, there may be some substations
that have
no SCADA. Second, there may be some substation RTUs or telemetry systems
that areData error comes from the fact that all analog measurement devices contain some
measurement error. due
unavailable Typically this error or
to maintenance is small for anytrouble.
unexpected single device, but the use of many
thousands of devices, each having small error, can result in significant inaccuracy in regards
to the overall system analysis. The state estimator is a program that receives the SCADA
measurement information and then uses statistical procedures to obtain the very best estimate
of the actual state of the system. The result of state estimation is a power flow model that can
be used for security assessment.
UNIT-V 5. 18
Since loads and generation change continuously, the power system never attains a
steady state. For the purpose of mathematical analysis, however, a steady state operating
point over a short interval of time may be considered where the changes in system variables
are within reasonable limits.
5.6.1. Power System Variables:

The variables of interest for network monitoring are (i) voltage magnitudes and phase
angles, real and reactive power flows at each network bus and (ii) real and reactive
power
flows in each line. Meters for measuring watts, VARs and volts can be placed at
generator
buses, EHV lines, tie - lines and load buses and the readings can be telemeter in real
time to
the control centers. However, only some of the measurements are available
immediately
while the rest are either delayed as is the case of information from a neighboring,
interconnected system or not available (like data from the low voltage distribution
side).
Further, the available data may not be perfect due to errors in the meters. Some of the
meter
readings may also be missing.
Let n be the dimension of the state vector X and m be the dimension of the
measurement vector Z. Since the slack bus is fixed, we have Nb voltage magnitudes
and (Nb-
I) voltage phase angles where Nb is the number of buses.
XT = [V1, V2 ..... VN,
δ2..... δNb]
Knowing X, all other quantities like active and reactive power flows, line flows, etc
can be
computed. In practice, all the values of X cannot be directly metered. The
measurement
vector Z and the state vector X are related by the nonlinear equation
Z =
h(X) + ή
Where h is the measurement noise. By exercising option in the selection of
variables for
metering. Five types of measurement vectors can be identified.
C
UNIT-V
ase I 5. 19
Measuring real an,d reactive powers PI and QI at all nodes, except P, at the
swing bus.
ZT = [P2 ..... PNb,QI..... QNb, Vi.... VNb]

Here ZT is a (3Nb - I) dimensional vector.
Case 3:
Real and reactive power flow in the lines Pij and Qij at both ends of each line may be
measured.
and it is a 4 N e dimensional vector where N e is the number of lines.

Case 4:
All the variables of case 3 and voltage magnitudes at all buses may be measured yielding.
an (N I + Nh) dimensional vector.

Case 5:
All variables may be measured giving
Which is (4Nh - I + 4 Nf) dimensional.
5.7. SECURITY ANALYSIS & CONTROL:
Security monitoring is the on line identification of the actual operating conditions of a power
system. It requires system wide instrumentation to gather the system data as well as a means
for the on line determination of network topology involving an open or closed position of
circuit breakers. A state estimation has been developed to get the best estimate of the status
.the state estimation provides the database for security analysis shown in fig.5.6.
 Data acquisition:
1. To process from RTU
2. To check status values against normal value
3. To send alarm conditions to alarm processor
4. To check analog measurements against limits.
 Alarm processor:
1. To send alarm messages
2. To transmit messages according to priority
UNIT-V 5. 20
 Status processor:
1. To determine status of each substation for proper connection.
 Reserve monitor:
1. To check generator MW output on all units against unit limits
 State estimator:
1. To determine system state variables
2. To detect the presence of bad measures values.
3. To identify the location of bad measurements
4. To initialize the network model for other
programs
Figure 5.6.Practical Security Monitoring System
5.7.1. Security Control Function:
 Network Topology processor-mode of the N/W

 State estimator.
 Power flow-V, δ,P,Q.
 Optimal power flow.
UNIT-V 5. 21
 Contingency analysis.
 Optimal power flow.
 Security enhancement-existing overload using corrective control action.
 Preventive action.
 Short circuit analysis.
5.7.2. System Security

1. System monitoring.
2. Contingency analysis.
3. Security constrained optimal power flow
5.7.3. Security Assessment
Security assessment
determines first, whether
the system is currently
residing in an
acceptable state and second,
whether the system would
respond in an acceptable
manner and
reach an acceptable state
following any one of a pre-
defined
Of course,contingency set. component,
with one less A the overall system is weaker, and undesirable effects
contingency
may occur. For example, some remaining circuit may overload, or some bus may experience
is the unexpected failure of
an
a undervoltage condition.
transmission line,These are called static security problems.
transformer, or
generator.Usually,
Dynamic security problems may also occur, including uncontrollable voltage decline,
generator overspeed
contingencies result(loss of synchronism), or undamped oscillatory behavior.
from
occurrence of a fault, or
short-circuit, to one of these
Security Control
components.
Power systems
When such a fault
are designed to occurs,
the protectionall systems
survive
sense the fault and remove
probable
the component, A
contingencies.
contingency
and therefore also is the fault, from the system.
defined
as an event that
causes one or
more important
components such
as transmission
UNIT-V
lines, 5. 22
generators, and
state: the current state if executing the real-time network sequence; a postulated state if
executing a study sequence. Sequence means sequential execution of programs that perform
the following steps:
1. Determine the state of the system based on either current or postulated conditions.
2. Process a list of contingencies to determine the consequences of each contingency on the
system in its specified state.
3. Determine preventive or corrective action for those contingencies which represent
unacceptable risk.
Security control requires topological processing to build network models and uses large-scale
AC network analysis to determine system conditions. The required applications are grouped
as a network subsystem that typically includes the following functions:
• Topology processor: Processes real-time status measurements to determine an electrical
connectivity (bus) model of the power system network.
• State estimator: Uses real-time status and analog measurements to determine the „„best‟‟
estimate of the state of the power system. It uses a redundant set of measurements; calculates
voltages, phase angles, and power flows for all components in the system; and reports
overload conditions.
• Power flow: Determines the steady-state conditions of the power system network for a
specified generation and load pattern. Calculates voltages, phase angles, and flows across the
entire system.
• Contingency analysis: Assesses the impact of a set of contingencies on the state of the
power system and identifies potentially harmful contingencies that cause operating limit
violations.
Optimal power flow: Recommends controller actions to optimize a specified objective
function (such as system operating cost or losses) subject to a set of power system operating
constraints.
• Security enhancement: Recommends corrective control actions to be taken to alleviate an
existing or potential overload in the system while ensuring minimal operational cost.
• Preventive action: Recommends control actions to be taken in a “preventive” mode before a
contingency occurs to preclude an overload situation if the contingency were to occur.
• Bus load forecasting: Uses real-time measurements to adaptively forecast loads for the
electrical connectivity (bus) model of the power system network.
UNIT-V 5. 23
• Transmission loss factors: Determines incremental loss sensitivities for generating units;
calculates the impact on losses if the output of a unit were to be increased by 1 MW.
• Short-circuit analysis: Determines fault currents for single-phase and three-phase faults for
fault locations across the entire power system network.
FIGURE 5.7: Real-time and study network analysis sequences.
5.8. VARIOUS OPERATING STATES:
Figure5.8: Operating states
UNIT-V 5. 24
1. Normal state
2. Alert state
3. Emergency state
4. Extremis state
5. Restorative state
 Normal state:
A system is said to be in normal if both load and operating constraints are satisfied .It is one
in which the total demand on the system is met by satisfying all the operating constraints.
 Alert state:
A normal state of the system said to be in alert state if one or more of the postulated
contingency states, consists of the constraint limits violated. When the system security level
falls below a certain level or the probability of disturbance increases, the system may be in
alert state .All equalities and inequalities are satisfied, but on the event of a disturbance, the
system may not have all the inequality constraints satisfied. If severe disturbance occurs, the
system will push into emergency state. To bring back the system to secure state, preventive
control action is carried out.
 Emergency state:
The system is said to be in emergency state if one or more operating constraints are violated,
but the load constraint is satisfied .In this state, the equality constraints are unchanged. The
system will return to the normal or alert state by means of corrective actions, disconnection of
faulted section or load sharing.
 Extremis state:
When the system is in emergency, if no proper corrective action is taken in time, then it goes
to either emergency state or extremis state. In this regard neither the load or nor the operating
constraint is satisfied, this result is islanding. Also the generating units are strained beyond
their capacity .So emergency control action is done to bring back the system state either to
the emergency state or normal state.
 Restorative state:
From this state, the system may be brought back either to alert state or secure state .The latter
is a slow process. Hence, in certain cases, first the system is brought back to alert state and
then to the secure state .This is done using restorative control action.
UNIT-V 5. 25
QUESTION BANK
PART A
1. Define Energy control centre.

2. What is contingency analysis program?
3. What is SCADA?
4. What are the different operating states of a power system?
5. What is security monitoring and control?
6. List the factors that affect the power system security.
7. What are the important types of relays used for protection?
8. What is the use of digital computer in short circuit computations?
PART-B
1. Explain
the energy control centre and its function.
2.
Explain
3. system using a
the different system operating states.
Explain
4. the hardware components and functional
aspects of SCADA
5.
fundamental block diagram.
6.
Explain the master
7.
station and Remote Terminal Units (TRU).
8.
Explain the various
9. Explain
controls the
for security
secure operation.
monitoring using state estimation with necessary diagrams?
Explain the static state
Estimation.
Explain the Security monitoring
function and Security control function. Explain security analysis and
control.
UNIT-V 5. 26

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Paavai Institutions Department of EEE

1.4.4. Automatic voltage regulator

Objectives of a power system Operation

1.1. SYSTEM LOAD VARIATION

1.1.1.2. Maximum Demand:

1.1.1.4. Average Load:

1.1.1.6. Diversity Factor:

Diversity factor= �������

Plant use factor  Station output in kWh

Figure.1.1 Load curves

Figure.1.2. Daily load curve

Figure.1.3. Load Duration Curve

1.2. RESERVE REQUIREMENTS

1.2.3. Cold reserve:

1.3. OVER VIEW OF SYSTEM OPERATION

1.3.3. Load dispatching:

1.4.3. Economic dispatch control

Frequency tie flows generator power

System generator control

Load frequency control,

Economic dispatch schedule

System voltage control

Generator Other generating units

Transmission controls, reactive power and voltage

Frequency tie flows generator power

Figure.1.4. Overview of system operation and control

Plant capacity =Unit generated per annum/capacity factor hours in a year

Time 0-6 6-10 10-12 12-16 16-20 20-24

2.1. SYSTEM LOAD FORECASTING

important than in a non-deregulated economy when rate increases could be justified by

2.1.2. Forecasting Methods

L = Ln + Lw + Ls + Lr, -------------------------------------------- (1)

Naturally, price decreases/increases affect electricity consumption. Large cost sensitive

L = Ln+ Fw +Fs+ Fr, -------------------------------------------------- (2)

2.1.3. Medium- and long-term load forecasting methods

L(t) = F (d(t), h(t)) · f (w(t)) + R(t),--------------------------------------(3)

2.2. ECONOMIC DISPATCH

The operation economics can again be subdivided into two parts.

i) Base supply without regulation: the output is a constant.

Regardless of the units operating state, it has a contribution to the economic

Figure 2.1: Input – output curve

Figure 2.2 Heat rate curve.

Incremental fuel rate =∆Input/∆ Output

Figure 2.3: Incremental fuel rate curve

Figure 2.4: Incremental cost curve

The incremental fuel cost is given by

2.2.3. Solution Methods:

Figure2.5. N thermal units committed to serve a load of P load.

Unit 2 Oil-fired steam unit: Max output = 400 MW

Unit 1: fuel cost = 1.1 P/MBtu

Using Eq. 3.5, the conditions for an optimum dispatch are

and then solving for, P1,P2,P3

we see that λ must equal the incremental cost of unit 2 since it

2.2.5. Thermal System Dispatching With Network Losses Considered

Figure 2.6. Shows symbolically an all-thermal power generation system connected to

Figure.2.6.N thermal units serving load through transmission network

2.2.6. The Lambda-Iteration Method

Figure: 2.7. Lambda-iteration method

This procedure is an iterative type of computation, and we must establish stopping

Then the total cost, which is to be minimized, is:

2.2.7. Base Point and Participation Factors

2.2.8. Economic dispatch controller added to LFC:

Figure: 2.8. Economic dispatch controller added to LFC

Diversity factor= ��