Cellular

Division
1
• Who among of you here have experienced being
wounded?
• How is it that few weeks after wounds, normally
heal?
• Have you been measuring your heights yearly?
• Has there been any difference with your height
last year than this year? Why do you think is this
so?

2
3
 Cell Division
All cells are derived from pre-
existing cells
New cells are produced for
growth and to replace damaged or
old cells
Differs in prokaryotes (bacteria)
and eukaryotes (protists, fungi,
plants, & animals)

4
 Keeping Cells Identical

The instructions for

making cell parts
are encoded in the
DNA, so each new
cell must get a
complete set of the
DNA molecules

5
 DNA Replication
DNA must be
copied or Original DNA
strand
replicated
before cell
division Two new,
identical DNA
Each new cell strands
will then have an
identical copy of
the DNA

6
Identical Daughter Cells

Two
identical
daughter
cells

Parent Cell

7
Chromosomes

8
 Prokaryotic Chromosome
 The DNA of
prokaryotes
(bacteria) is one,
circular
chromosome
attached to the
inside of the cell
membrane

9
 Eukaryotic Chromosomes
All eukaryotic cells store genetic
information in chromosomes
 Most eukaryotes have between 10 and
50 chromosomes in their body cells
 Human body cells have 46 chromosomes
or 23 identical pairs

10
 Eukaryotic Chromosomes
Each chromosome is composed of a
single, tightly coiled DNA molecule
Chromosomes can’t be seen when
cells aren’t dividing and are called
chromatin

11
 Compacting DNA into
Chromosomes
DNA is
tightly
coiled
around
proteins
called
histones

12
Chromosomes in Dividing Cells
Duplicated
chromosomes are
called
chromatids &
are held
together by the
centromere

Called Sister Chromatids 13

 Karyotype
 A picture of the
chromosomes from a
human cell arranged
in pairs by size
 First 22 pairs are
called autosomes
 Last pair are the
sex chromosomes
 XX female or XY
male

14
 Boy or Girl?
The Y Chromosome Decides

Y - Chromosome

X - Chromosome
15
Cell Reproduction

16
 Types of Cell Reproduction
Asexual reproduction involves a
single cell dividing to make 2 new,
identical daughter cells
Mitosis & binary fission are
examples of asexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves two
cells (egg & sperm) joining to make a
new cell (zygote) that is NOT
identical to the original cells
Meiosis is an example
17
Cell Division in
Prokaryotes

18
 Cell Division in Prokaryotes
 Prokaryotes such as
bacteria divide into 2 Parent
cell
identical cells by the
process of binary
fission Chromosome
 Single chromosome doubles
makes a copy of
itself
 Cell wall forms Cell splits
between the
chromosomes dividing
the cell
2 identical daughter cells 19
 Prokaryotic Cell
Undergoing Binary Fission

20
Animation of Binary Fission

21
The Cell
Cycle
22
Cell Increase and Decrease

• Cell division increases the number of

somatic (body) cells, and consists of:
• Mitosis (division of nucleus)
• Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm)
• Apoptosis (cell death) decreases the number
of cells.
• Both cell increase and apoptosis occur during
normal development and growth.

5-23
The Cell Cycle
• The cell cycle is an orderly sequence of events that
occurs from the time when a cell is first formed
until it divides into two new cells.
• Most of the cell cycle is spent in interphase.
• Following interphase, the mitotic stage of cell
division occurs.

5-24
The stages of interphase
• G1 stage – cell growth, cell doubles its organelles,
accumulates materials for DNA synthesis
• S stage – DNA synthesis occurs, and DNA
replication results in duplicated chromosomes
• G2 stage – cell synthesizes proteins needed for cell
division

5-25
Five Phases of the Cell Cycle
G1 - primary growth phase
S – synthesis; DNA replicated
G2 - secondary growth phase
collectively these 3 stages are
called interphase
M - mitosis
C - cytokinesis

26
Cell Cycle

27
The cell cycle

5-28
Cell Cycle
Interphase - G1 Stage

1st growth stage after cell

division
Cells mature by making more
cytoplasm & organelles
Cell carries on its normal
metabolic activities

30
 Interphase – S Stage
Synthesis stage
DNA is copied or replicated

Two
identical
copies
of DNA

Original
DNA
31
 Interphase – G2 Stage
2nd Growth Stage
Occurs after DNA has been copied
All cell structures needed for
division are made (e.g. centrioles)
Both organelles & proteins are
synthesized

32
What’s Happening in Interphase?

What the cell looks like

Animal Cell

What’s occurring

33
 Sketch the Cell Cycle

DNA Copied
Cells prepare for
Cells Division
Mature

Daughter
Cells
Cell Divides into
Identical cells
34
Control of the cell cycle
• The cell cycle is controlled at three checkpoints:
1. During G1 prior to the S stage
2. During G2 prior to the M stage
3. During the M stage prior to the end of mitosis
• DNA damage can also stop the cell cycle at the
G1 checkpoint.

5-35
5-36
Apoptosis
• Apoptosis is programmed cell death.
• Apoptosis occurs because of two sets of enzymes
called capsases.
• The first set, the “initiators” receive a signal to
activate the second set, the “executioners”.
• The second set of capsases activate enzymes that
tear apart the cell and its DNA.

5-37
Mitosis

38
Mitosis

The process of cell division which

results in the production of two
daughter cells from a single parent
cell.
The daughter cells are identical to
one another and to the original
parent cell.
 Mitosis
Division of the
nucleus
Also called
karyokinesis
Only occurs in
eukaryotes
Has four stages
Doesn’t occur in
some cells such
as brain cells
40
 Mitosis
Division of the
nucleus
Also called
karyokinesis
Only occurs in
eukaryotes
Has four stages
Doesn’t occur in
some cells such
as brain cells
41
The Mitotic Stage
• Following interphase is the M stage, including
mitosis and cytokinesis.
• During mitosis, sister chromatids of each
chromosome separate, and become the nuclei of
the two daughter cells.
• The cell cycle ends when cytokinesis, the cleaving
of the cytoplasm, is complete.

5-42
 Four Mitotic Stages

Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

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Maintaining the Chromosome Number
• When a eukaryotic cell is not dividing, the DNA
and associated proteins is a tangled mass of thin
threads called chromatin.
• At the time of cell division, the chromatin
condenses to form highly compacted structures
called chromosomes.
• Each species has a characteristic number of
chromosomes.

5-44
Overview of Mitosis
• The diploid number of chromosomes is found in
the somatic (non-sex) cells.
• The diploid (2n) number of chromosomes contains
two chromosomes of each kind.
• The haploid (n) number of chromosomes contains
one chromosome of each kind.

5-45
• In the life cycle of many animals, only sperm
and eggs have the haploid number of
chromosomes.
• The nuclei of somatic cells undergo mitosis, a
nuclear division in which the number of
chromosomes stays constant.
• Before nuclear division occurs, DNA
replication takes place, duplicating the
chromosomes.

5-46
• A duplicated chromosome is made of two
sister chromatids held together in a region
called the centromere.
• Sister chromatids are genetically identical.
• At the end of mitosis, each chromosome
consists of a single chromatid.
• During mitosis, the centromeres divide and
then the sister chromatids separate, becoming
daughter chromosomes.

5-47
5-48
Mitosis overview

5-49
• Following mitosis, a 2n parental cell gives rise
to two 2n daughter cells, or 2n → 2n.
• The cells of some organisms (algae, fungi) are
haploid as adults; n → n.
• Mitosis occurs when tissues grow or when
repair occurs.
• Following fertilization, the zygote divides
mitotically, and mitosis continues throughout
the lifespan of the organism.

5-50
Mitosis in Detail
• During mitosis, the spindle distributes the
chromosomes to each daughter cell.
• The spindle contains fibers made of microtubules that
disassemble and assemble.
• Centrosomes, that divide during interphase, organize
the spindle.
• Centrosomes contain centrioles and asters.
• Mitosis has four phases: prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase.

5-51
 Early Prophase
Chromatin in nucleus condenses to
form visible chromosomes
Mitotic spindle forms from fibers in
cytoskeleton or centrioles (animal)

Nucleolus Cytoplasm

Nuclear Membrane
Chromosomes

52
 Late Prophase
Nuclear membrane & nucleolus are
broken down
Chromosomes continue condensing &
are clearly visible
Spindle fibers called kinetochores
attach to the centromere of each
chromosome
Spindle finishes forming between the
poles of the cell
53
 Late Prophase

Chromosomes

Nucleus & Nucleolus have disintegrated

54
 Spindle Fiber attached to
Chromosome

Kinetochore Fiber

Chromosome
55
 Review of Prophase

What the cell

looks like

What’s happening 56
 Spindle Fibers
The mitotic spindle form from the
microtubules in plants and centrioles
in animal cells
Polar fibers extend from one pole of
the cell to the opposite pole
Kinetochore fibers extend from the
pole to the centromere of the
chromosome to which they attach
Asters are short fibers radiating
from centrioles
57
Sketch The Spindle

58
 Metaphase
Chromosomes, attached to the
kinetochore fibers, move to the center
of the cell
Chromosomes are now lined up at the
equator Equator of Cell

Pole of
the Cell

59
 Metaphase

Asters at
the poles

Spindle Chromosomes
Fibers lined at the
Equator

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 Metaphase

Aster

Chromosomes at Equator
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 Review of Metaphase

What the cell looks

like

What’s
occurring
62
 Anaphase
Occurs rapidly
Sister
chromatids are
pulled apart to
opposite poles
of the cell by
kinetochore
fibers

63
 Anaphase

Sister
Chromatids
being
separated

64
 Anaphase Review

What the
cell looks
like

What’s
occurring

65
 Telophase
Sister chromatids at opposite
poles
Spindle disassembles
Nuclear envelope forms around
each set of sister chromatids
Nucleolus reappears
CYTOKINESIS occurs
Chromosomes reappear as
chromatin

66
Comparison of Anaphase & Telophase

67
 Cytokinesis
Means division of the cytoplasm
Division of cell into two,
identical halves called daughter
cells
In plant cells, cell plate forms
at the equator to divide cell
In animal cells, cleavage furrow
forms to split cell

68
 Cytokinesis
Cleavage furrow Cell plate in
in animal cell plant cell

69
Cytokinesis in Plant and Animal Cells
• Cytokinesis, or cytoplasmic cleavage,
accompanies mitosis.
• Cleavage of the cytoplasm begins in anaphase, but
is not completed until just before the next
interphase.
• Newly-formed cells receive a share of cytoplasmic
organelles duplicated during the previous
interphase.

5-70
Cytokinesis in Plant Cells
• The rigid cell wall surrounding plant cells does not
permit cytokinesis by furrowing.
• The Golgi apparatus releases vesicles that
microtubles move to the cell plate forming
between the two new cells.
• New plant cell walls form and are later
strengthened by cellulose fibers.

5-71
Cytokinesis in plant cells

5-72
Cytokinesis in Animal Cells
• In animal cells, a cleavage furrow begins at the
end of anaphase.
• A band of actin and myosin filaments, called the
contractile ring, slowly forms a constriction
between the two daughter cells.
• A narrow bridge between the two cells is apparent
during telophase, then the contractile ring
completes the division.

5-73
Mitotic Stages

74
 Daughter Cells of Mitosis
Have the same number of
chromosomes as each other and as
the parent cell from which they
were formed
Identical to each other, but smaller
than parent cell
Must grow in size to become mature
cells (G1 of Interphase)

75
Identical Daughter Cells

What is
the 2n
or
diploid
number?
2

Chromosome number the same, but cells

smaller than parent cell
76
Review
of
Mitosis

77
Draw & Learn these Stages

78
Draw & Learn these Stages

79
 Name the Mitotic Stages:
Interphase

Name this?

Prophase
Telophase

Name this?

Metaphase
Anaphase

80
 Eukaryotic Cell Division
 Used for growth and repair
 Produce two new cells
identical to the original cell
 Cells are diploid (2n)
Chromosomes during
Metaphase of mitosis

Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis

81
 Mitosis Animation
Name each stage as you see it occur?

82
Mitosis in Onion Root Tips
Do you see any stages of mitosis?

83
Test Yourself
over Mitosis

84
Mitosis Quiz

85
Mitosis Quiz

86
Name the Stages of Mitosis:
Early prophase
Early Anaphase Metaphase

Interphase Early
Telophase,
Begin
cytokinesis

Late Late telophase,

Prophase Advanced Mid-Prophase Late
cytokinesis Anaphase
87
 Identify the Stages
?
Early, Middle, & Late Prophase

? ? ?
Late Prophase Metaphase Anaphase

? ? ?
Late Anaphase Telophase Telophase &
Cytokinesis 88
 Locate the Four Mitotic
Stages in Plants

Anaphase
Telophase
Metaphase

Prophase

89
 Uncontrolled Mitosis
 If mitosis is not
controlled, unlimited
cell division occurs
causing cancerous
tumors
 Oncogenes are special
proteins that
increase the chance
that a normal cell
develops into a tumor
cell
Cancer cells
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THANK YOU

91
 Meiosis
Formation of Gametes
(Eggs & Sperm)

92
Discovery of Meiosis

• In 1882, British cytologist Pierre-Joseph

van Beneden found different numbers of
chromosomes in different cells

• Specifically, he observed that gametes (sperm

& egg) contain half the number of
chromosomes compared to somatic cells
(nonreproductive cells).
Fertilization
• Van Beneden then proposed that an egg and a
sperm fuse to produce a zygote .

• The zygote contains two copies of each

chromosome (one copy from the sperm and one
copy from the egg). These are called homologous
chromosomes.

• Fertilization is the name for the fusion of

gametes.
Reduction Division
• Since the sperm and the egg contain only half the
number of chromosomes, they cannot be formed
from mitosis.

• Meiosis - the process of cell division that

produces gametes with half the number of
chromosomes as somatic cells
– Cell undergoes 2 rounds of cell division:
• Meiosis 1
• Meiosis 2

• Humans have 46 chromosomes in their somatic

cells.
 Facts About Meiosis
Preceded by interphase which
includes chromosome replication
Two meiotic divisions --- Meiosis
I and Meiosis II
Called Reduction- division
Original cell is diploid (2n)
Four daughter cells produced that
are monoploid (1n)
96
 Facts About Meiosis
Daughter cells contain half the
number of chromosomes as the
original cell
Produces gametes (eggs & sperm)
Occurs in the testes in males
(Spermatogenesis)
Occurs in the ovaries in females
(Oogenesis)

97
 More Meiosis Facts
 Start with 46 double stranded
chromosomes (2n)
After 1 division - 23 double
stranded chromosomes (n)
After 2nd division - 23 single
stranded chromosomes (n)
  Occurs in our germ cells that

produce gametes

98
Why Do we Need Meiosis?
It is the fundamental basis of
sexual reproduction
Two haploid (1n) gametes are
brought together through
fertilization to form a diploid
(2n) zygote

99
Fertilization – “Putting it
all together”
2n = 6

1n =3

100
 Replication of Chromosomes
 Replication is the
process of
duplicating a Occurs in
chromosome Interphase
 Occurs prior to
division
 Replicated copies
are called sister
chromatids
 Held together at
centromere
101
 A Replicated Chromosome

Gene X

Homologs Sister
(same genes, Chromatids
different alleles) (same genes,
same alleles)

Homologs separate in meiosis I and

therefore different alleles separate.
102
Meiosis Forms Haploid Gametes
 Meiosis must reduce the chromosome number by half
 Fertilization then restores the 2n number

from mom from dad child

too
much!

meiosis reduces
genetic content
The right
number!
103
 Meiosis: Two Part Cell
Division
Sister
chromatids
Homologs separate
separate

Meiosis Meiosis
I II

Diploid
Diploid
Haploid
104
 Meiosis I: Reduction Division

Nucleus Spindle
fibers Nuclear
Early envelope
Prophase I Late Metaphase
(Chromosome Prophase I Anaphase Telophase I
number I I (diploid)
doubled)

105
 Prophase I

Early prophase Late prophase

Homologs pair. Chromosomes condense.
Crossing over Spindle forms.
occurs. Nuclear envelope
fragments.
106
Tetrads Form in Prophase I

Homologous chromosomes Join to form a

(each with sister chromatids) TETRAD
 

Called Synapsis
107
 Crossing-Over
 Homologous
chromosomes in
a tetrad cross
over each other
 Pieces of
chromosomes or
genes are
exchanged
 Produces
Genetic
recombination in
the offspring
108
Homologous Chromosomes
During Crossing-Over

109
 Crossing-Over

Crossing-over multiplies the already huge

number of different gamete types
produced by independent assortment 110
Metaphase I

Homologous pairs
of chromosomes
align along the
equator of the
cell

111
Anaphase I

Homologs separate and

move to opposite poles.

Sister chromatids remain

attached at their
centromeres.

112
Telophase I

Nuclear envelopes
reassemble.

Spindle disappears.

Cytokinesis divides cell

into two.

113
 Meiosis II
Only one homolog of each
Gene X chromosome is present in
the cell.
cell
Sister chromatids carry
identical genetic
information.

Meiosis II produces gametes with

one copy of each chromosome and
thus one copy of each gene.
114
 Meiosis II: Reducing
Chromosome Number

Prophase Metaphase
II II Telophase
Anaphase II 4 Non
II identical
haploid cells
115
Prophase II

Nuclear envelope
fragments.

Spindle forms.

116
Metaphase II

Chromosomes align
along equator of cell.

117
 Anaphase II
Equator

Pole

Sister chromatids
separate and
move to opposite
poles.

118
Telophase II

Nuclear envelope
assembles.

Chromosomes
decondense.

Spindle disappears.

Cytokinesis divides
cell into two.
119
Results of Meiosis
Gametes (egg & sperm)
form

Four haploid cells with

one copy of each
chromosome

One allele of each gene

Different combinations of
alleles for different
genes along the
chromosome
120
Gametogenesis
Oogenesis
or
Spermatogenesis

121
 Spermatogenesis
 Occurs in the
testes
 Two divisions
produce 4
spermatids
 Spermatids mature
into sperm
 Men produce about
250,000,000
sperm per day
122
Spermatogenesis in the
Testes
Spermatid

123
Spermatogenesis

124
 Oogenesis
Occurs in the ovaries
Two divisions produce 3 polar bodies
that die and 1 egg
Polar bodies die because of unequal
division of cytoplasm
Immature egg called oocyte
Starting at puberty, one oocyte
matures into an ovum (egg) every 28
days
125
Oogenesis in the Ovaries

126
 Oogenesis
First polar body
may divide a
(haploid) X
a Polar
bodies
X a
die
a X
X
Mitosis Meiosis I Meiosis II
A X (if fertilization
Oogonium occurs) A
(diploid) Primary
X
oocyte
A X Ovum (egg) Mature
(diploid)
Secondary A egg
oocyte X
(haploid) Second
polar body
(haploid)
127
Comparing
Mitosis and
Meiosis

128
 Comparison of Divisions
Mitosis Meiosis
Number of 2
1
divisions
Number of
2 4
daughter cells
Genetically
Yes No
identical?
Chromosome # Same as parent Half of parent
Where Somatic cells Germ cells
When Throughout life At sexual maturity
Growth and
Role Sexual reproduction
repair 129
Meiosis Quick Check Questions:
1. What kinds of cells does mitosis produce?
2. How many chromosomes do human haploid cells
have?
3. What kinds of cells does meiosis produce?
4. How many cells are produced when one cell goes
through meiosis?
5. How many times are chromosomes replicated during
meiosis?
6. How do cells in meiosis get to be different?
7. If an organism’s somatic cells have 36 chromosomes,
how many chromosomes do their gametes have?
131