CHAPTER:10

DISCOVERING ATOMS
REPORT BY:
KRISTINA CYRIL D. MERCADO
. VINZCENT KIELZIE M. DULCE
. RICH MON M. FERNANDEZ
 Atomic Theory of Matter
• John dalton is an english school teacher and amateur meteorologist
proposed a theory of matter he regarded as the father of chemical In
recognition of the importance of his atomic theory to the development
of chemical knowledge.

• Dalton proposed a theory of the particle nature of matter. It is called

DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY .
John Dalton FRS (/ˈdɔːltən/; 6
September 1766 – 27 July 1844) was
an English chemist, physicist, and
meteorologist. He is best known for
introducing the atomic theory into
chemistry, and for his research into
colour blindness, sometimes referred
to as Daltonism in his honour.
 DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

1. all matter is composed of tiny,indivisible particles called atoms for example atoms of oxygen

2. all atoms of a particular element are identical, but the atoms of one element differ from tge
atoms of any other element. Each element has unique atoms

3. atoms of different elements combine with each other in certain whole-number proportions to
form compounds. For exemple,water(H2O) is a combination of one atom of oxygen and two
atoms of hydrogen

4. in a chemical reaction, atoms are rearranged to form new compounds, they are not
created,destroyed,not changed into atoms of any other element
• There were three fundamental laws established by Dalton and other
scientists of his time to support the atomic theory.
These laws are:
1. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
2. LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS
3. LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS
 LAW OF COSERVATION OF MASS
• This was outlined by Antoine Laurent Lavoisier. It states that in a
chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed; or more
accurately, there is no detectable change in mass during an ordinary chemical
reaction. It is a relation stating that in a chemical reaction, the mass of the
products equals the mass of the reactants

• This law is consistent with Dalton’s atomic theory. If reacting substances are
made up of atoms, and if the atoms in the different elements in these
substances are unique and cannot be created nor destroyed but only
rearranged, then it follows that the total mass of the products must equal the
total mass of the reactants.
 • Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier was a French nobleman and
chemist who was central to the 18th-century chemical revolution
and who had a large influence on both the history of chemistry
and the history of biology. He is widely considered in popular
literature as the "father of modern chemistry".[

• Dr. Sylianco obtained three degrees from Silliman University: Associate

in Arts major in Chemistry in 1947, with highest honors; Bachelor of
Science in 1948, magna cum laude; and Bachelor of Science in
Chemistry in 1949, magna cum laude.A native of Guihulngan, Negros
Oriental, she completed her MS Chemistry from the University of the
Philippines in 1953 and her PhD in Biochemistry and Organic
Chemistry from the University of Iowa in 1957.
 LAW OF DEFINITE
PROPORTION
• It states that different samples of any pure compound contain the same
elements in the same proportions by mass. In a compound, the constituent
elements are always present in a definite proportion by weight.

• JOSEPH PROUST (1754 – 1826) established the second fundamental law

that supports the atomic theory. One such study, which Proust made in
1799, involved copper carbonate. He discovered that regardless of how
copper carbonate was prepared in the laboratory or how it was isolated from
nature, it always contained the same proprtions by mass —— five parts
copper, four parts oxygen, and one part carbon
• Joseph Louis Proust (26 September
1754 – 5 July 1826) was a French
chemist. He was best known for his
discovery of the law of constant
composition in 1794, stating that
chemical compounds always combine in
constant proportions.
 LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTION

• It sates that the mass of one element that can combine with a fixed mass
of another element are in a ratio of small whole numbers.
 DISCOVERING THE
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
• In the fifth cebtury B.C, the Greek philosopher Leucippus and his pupil
Democritus first made the proposal that matter is composed of tiny
particles that cannot be subdivided. Democritus gave these ultimate
particles the name atomos, which literally means “uncuttable” in Greek

• Democritus understood that all matter was like grains of sand on a

beach. That is, the beach looked like one continuous piece from afar,
but it actually consists of small grains of sand. It was the beginning of
our modern understanding of the particulate nature of matter. He
presumed that matter, too, was composed of tiny indivisible particles and
he called these atoms. However, his proposal was not yet supported at
the time by facts
Greek philosopher
Leucippus
• Leucippus is reported in some ancient sources to have been a philosopher who was
the earliest Greek to develop the theory of atomism—the idea that everything is
composed entirely of various imperishable, indivisible elements called atoms.
Leucippus often appears as the master to his pupil Democritus, a philosopher also
touted as the originator of the atomic theory. However, a brief notice in Diogenes
Laërtius’s life of Epicurus says that on the testimony of Epicurus, Leucippus never
existed. As the philosophical heir of Democritus, Epicurus's word has some weight,
and indeed a controversy over this matter raged in German scholarship for many
years at the close of the 19th century. Furthermore, in his Corpus
Democriteum,Thrasyllus of Alexandria, an astrologer and writer living under the
emperor Tiberius , compiled a list of writings on atomism that he attributed to
Democritus to the exclusion of Leucippus. The present consensus among the world's
historians of philosophy is that this Leucippus is historical. The matter must remain
moot unless more information is forthcoming from the record.
 • Democritus
• DemocritUs was an Ancient Greek
pre-Socratic philosopher primarily
remembered today for his formulation
of an atomic theory of the universe.
 DALTON’S MODEL
• John Dalton proposed and conceptualized the atomic theory of matter
based on the original thoughts of Democritus. As discussed, this law
decribes matter as composed of tiny ,indivisible particles called atoms.

• There is an over whelming circumstantial evidence to show that Dalton’s

theory was correct. A direct proof has been shown in recent years with
the use of a highly sophisticated instrument called the SCANNING
TUNNELING MICROSCOPE, where images of atoms of the heavier
elements are produced
SCANNING TUNNELING MICROSCOPE
• A scanning tunneling microscope (STM) is an instrument for imaging surfaces at the atomic
level. Its development in 1981 earned its inventors, Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer (at IBM
Zürich), the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986. For an STM, good resolution is considered to be 0.1
nm lateral resolution and 0.01 nm (10 pm) depth resolution. With this resolution, individual
atoms within materials are routinely imaged and manipulated. The STM can be used not only in
ultra-high vacuum but also in air, water, and various other liquid or gas ambients, and at
temperatures ranging from near zero kelvin to over 1000 °C.
• STM is based on the concept of quantum tunneling. When a conducting tip is brought very near
to the surface to be examined, a bias (voltage difference) applied between the two can allow
electrons to tunnel through the vacuum between them. The resulting tunneling current is a
function of tip position, applied voltage, and the local density of states (LDOS) of the sample.
Information is acquired by monitoring the current as the tip's position scans across the surface,
and is usually displayed in image form. STM can be a challenging technique, as it requires
extremely clean and stable surfaces, sharp tips, excellent vibration control, and sophisticated
electronics, but nonetheless many hobbyists have built their own.
 THOMSON’S MODEL

• By the late nineteenth century, new discoveries led to the belief

that atoms were not indivisible but were made up of smaller
subatomic particles. Within the confines of the atom is an
almost weightless particle called ELECTRON. In 1897, Sir
Joseph John Thomson diacovered the electron, a negatively
charged particle. He characterized the electron by proving that
it had a negative electrical charge, common to the atoms of all
elements. He proposed a model of the atom that is often referred
to as the Plum-pudding model
SIR JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON
WAS AN ENGLISH PHYSICIST
AND NOBEL LAUREATE IN
PHYSICS, CREDITED WITH THE
DISCOVERY AND
IDENTIFICATION OF THE
ELECTRON, THE FIRST
SUBATOMIC PARTICLE TO BE
DISCOVERED.
• In 1897, Thomson showed that cathode rays were composed of
previously unknown negatively charged particles (now called
electrons), which he calculated must have bodies much smaller than
atoms and a very large charge-to-mass ratio. Thomson is also credited
with finding the first evidence for isotopes of a stable (non-radioactive)
element in 1913, as part of his exploration into the composition of canal
rays (positive ions). His experiments to determine the nature of
positively charged particles, with Francis William Aston, were the first
use of mass spectrometry and led to the development of the mass
spectrograph.Thomson was awarded the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics
for his work on the conduction of electricity in gases.
 RUTHERFORD’S GOLD FOIL
EXPIREMENT
• Ernest Rutherford designed an expirement to study how alpha particles, with a +2 charge,
interact with a piece of gold foil. Rutherford bombarded a very thin gold foil with a stream of
positively charged particles known AS ALPHA PARTICLES. He found that most of the alpha
particles passed straight through the foil. This shows that most of the atom is empty space.
However, a few of the alpha particles Bounced back and some of the alpha particles were
deflected. This means that the center of the atom is positively charged because it repelled the
alpha particles, the charged of which is positive. A direct collision repels an alpha particle
backward. This shows that the center of the atom of gold is a tiny core heavier than an alpha
particle. Ruther ford concluded that an atom was made up of very dense, positively charged
nucleus surrounded primarily by empty space in which the electrons could be found. The
volume of the atom is essentially the space that the electrons occupy. Now we know that the
electrons move about the nucleus, not in a fixed location.
• In early work, Rutherford discovered the concept of radioactive half-life, the radioactive element radon,
and differentiated and named alpha and beta radiation. This work was performed at McGill University in
Canada. It is the basis for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry he was awarded in 1908 "for his investigations
into the disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances", for which he was
the first Canadian and Oceanian Nobel laureate.
• Rutherford moved in 1907 to the Victoria University of Manchester (today University of Manchester) in
the UK, where he and Thomas Royds proved that alpha radiation is helium nuclei. Rutherford performed
his most famous work after he became a Nobel laureate. In 1911, although he could not prove that it was
positive or negative, he theorized that atoms have their charge concentrated in a very small nucleus, and
thereby pioneered the Rutherford model of the atom, through his discovery and interpretation of
Rutherford scattering by the gold foil experiment of Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden. He conducted
research that led to the first "splitting" of the atom in 1917 in a nuclear reaction between nitrogen and
alpha particles, in which he also discovered (and named) the proton.
• Rutherford became Director of the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in 1919. Under
his leadership the neutron was discovered by James Chadwick in 1932 and in the same year the first
experiment to split the nucleus in a fully controlled manner was performed by students working under
his direction, John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton. After his death in 1937, he was honoured by being
interred with the greatest scientists of the United Kingdom, near Sir Isaac Newton's tomb in Westminster
Abbey. The chemical element rutherfordium (element 104) was named after him in 1997.
 THE NUCLEAR MODEL

• The nuclear model states that the atom consists of a dense

positive center called the nucleus that is orbited by negatively
charged electrons. Rutherford’s gold foil expirement proved
that most of an atom’s mass is found in a very small volume
called the nucleus.
 BOHR’S MODEL
• In 1912-1913, a Danish physicist Niels Bohr made a
significant contribution to the rapidly growing
knowledge of atomic structure. While studying the
line spectra of hydrogen, he was led to believe that
electrons in an atom exist in specific regions at
various distances from the nucleus. He visualized
the electrons as rotating in orbits around the nucleus,
like planets rotating around the sun. He theorized
that electrons had several possible orbits at different
distances from the nucleus and that an electron had
to be in one specific orbit or another, but this could
not exist between orbits. In other words, the energy
of the elctron is said to be quantized.
 THE HYDROGEN LINE
SPECTRUM
• Continuous spectrum is produced when white light Is pAssed
through a prism. The spectrum is like a rainbow, containing all
the wavelengths. On the contrary, when the hydrogen emission
spectrum in the visible region is passed through a prism, only
few lines appear, each representing a specific wavelength. The
hydrogen emission is called a Line Spectrum. The line spectrum
of the hydrogen atom proves that only certain energies are
allowed for the electron in the hydrogen atom. Each line in the
spectrum corresponds to a specific energy level possible for the
electron. If any energy level were allowed, a continuous spectrum
would be produced
 CHARACTER AND
BEHAVIOR OF MATTER
 ELECTRICAL NATURE
• In the 1830s, Michael Faraday and Humphry Davy demonstrated the electrical
nature of matter. They found that when electric current was passed through
molten compounds or water containing dissolved salts, decomposition took place
and concluded that the electric current mist be carried through these molten
compounds and solutions by charged atom called ions. Atoms are electrically
neutral, while ions are atoms that carry electrical charges.
• Ion came from the Greek word ienai which means “to go”. Ions that move toward
the caThode or negative electrode are called cations and are positively charged.
Ions that move toward the anode or positive electrode are called anions and are
positively charged
Michael Faraday FRS was a British scientist
who contributed to the study of
electromagnetism and electrochemistry. His
main discoveries include the principles
underlying electromagnetic induction,
diamagnetism and electrolysis.
Sir Humphry Davy
Sir Humphry Davy, 1st Baronet PRS MRIA FGS FRS (17 December 1778 –
29 May 1829) was a Cornish chemist and inventor,[1] who is best
remembered today for isolating, using electricity, a series of elements for the
first time: potassium and sodium in 1807 and calcium, strontium, barium,
magnesium and boron the following year, as well as discovering the
elemental nature of chlorine and iodine. He also studied the forces involved
in these separations, inventing the new field of electrochemistry. In 1799
Davy experimented with nitrous oxide and was astonished at how it made
him laugh, so he nicknamed it "laughing gas", and wrote about its potential
anaesthetic properties in relieving pain during surgery.
• The cathode-ray tube expirement proved the electrical character of the
atom. Today, we are more familiar with complex versions of a cathode-
ray tube, a television picture tube, florescent light, ande neon sign.
The cathode ray tube is a partially evacuated glass tube or a tube with
very little air in it.

• Using the cathode-ray tube, J. J. Thomson showed that in an electric

field, beam of cathode rays bents toward the positively charged plate.
Also, when a magnetic Field was applied, the cathode rays were
deflected. Thomson postulated that cathode rays must be composed of
negatively charged particles.
 X-RAYS AND RADIOACTIVITY
•Wilhelm Rontgen observed that a vacuum discharge tube, enclosed in a thin, black
cardboard box, caused a nearby piece of paper Coated with barium Platinocyanide to
glow with brilliant phosphorescence. He discovered a ray that could travel through
walls. These penetrating rays, which he called X-rays. Emitted from the discharge
tube, penetrated the box, and caused the salt to glow. The X-rays were like light
energy that could penetrate other bodies and affect photographic plates.

•Antoine Henri Becquerel experimented on a sample uranium compound. He

proposed that rays coming from within the potassium uranyl sulface exposed the
film. To further confirm the rays that he discovered were not X-rays, Becquerel
introduced the rays to magnetic field. Unlike X-rays that do not bend in magnetic
field due to its neutral nature, the newly discovered rays deflected when exposed to
magnetic field, showing that it is charged. Marie Curie studied this new phenomenon
and named it radioactivity. She bacame the first womam to receive a Noble prize in
physics
.
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen was a German mechanical engineer and physicist, who,
on 8 November 1895, produced and detected electromagnetic radiation in a
wavelength range known as X-rays or Röntgen rays, an achievement that earned
him the first Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901. In honour of his accomplishments, in
2004 the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) named
element 111, roentgenium, a radioactive element with multiple unstable isotopes,
after him.
• Henry G. J. Moseley developed the concept of atomic numbers. He
observed that meatls produce X-rays when bombarded with energetic
electrons. The frequenciesof the X-rays were different for each metal.
These different frequencies resulted from differences in a fundamental
property of each element the amount of positive charge in the nucleus.
Moseley correlated these frequencies to a series of hole numbers that he
assigned to each element. He called these whole numbers atomic number
Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley (/ˈmoʊzli/; 23
November 1887 – 10 August 1915) was an
English physicist, whose contribution to the
science of physics was the justification from
physical laws of the previous empirical and
chemical concept of the atomic number. This
stemmed from his development of Moseley's law
in X-ray spectra.
• Moseley‘s law advanced atomic physics, nuclear physics and quantum physics by
providing the first experimental evidence in favour of Niels Bohr’s theory, aside
from the hydrogen atom spectrum which the Bohr theory was designed to
reproduce. That theory refined Ernest Rutherford‘s and Antonius van den Broek’s
model, which proposed that the atom contains in its nucleus a number of positive
nuclear charges that is equal to its (atomic) number in the periodic table. This
remains the accepted model today.

• When World War I broke out in Western Europe, Moseley left his research work
at the University of Oxford behind to volunteer for the Royal Engineers of the
British Army. Moseley was assigned to the force of British Empire soldiers that
invaded the region of Gallipoli, Turkey, in April 1915, as a telecommunications
officer. Moseley was shot and killed during the Battle of Gallipoli on 10 August
1915, at the age of 27. Experts have speculated that Moseley could otherwise have
been awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1916. As a consequence, the British
government instituted new policies for eligibility for combat duty.