Metal Casting

Metal casting
01. Introduction
02. Metal melting
03. Type of casting
04. Mathematical Analysis of casting
05. Casting defects
 01. Introduction
Metal casting
Metal casting is a process which Solid material heated to become molten, then
poured into a mold cavity that contains opposite shape of the desired shape then it
allows to cools and solidifies and remove the finished objects.

Mold making  pour liquid metal  Allows to solidify  finish

Fig : Steps of the sand casting operation

Advantages of casting
1. Complex geometries can produce easily (Internal and external)
2. Casted parts have same properties along all directions
3. Little wastage of material
4. Can produce very large parts
5. Any metal can cast

Disadvantages of casting
1. Limitation in mechanical properties (strength, porosity, cracks)
2. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish is poor (shrinkage ,oxidation)
3. Safety Hazard
 02. Metal melting

There are four main type of furnaces are used

to melt metals in casting operation.
1. Cupolas
2. Electric arc furnace
3. Induction furnace
4. Crucible furnace
 Cupolas
• Vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with tapping spout near the base
• Used only for cast irons, and although other furnaces are also used, largest tonnage
of cast iron is melted in cupolas
• The "charge," consisting of iron, coke, limestone, and possible alloying elements, is
loaded through a charging door located less than halfway up height of cupola
 Electric arc furnace
Electric arc furnace (EAF) heats charged material by means of an electricity.
The source of heat is a continuous electric arc that is formed between the
electrode and the charged material.

In this type of furnace generate

around 1925 ºC temperature.
There are usually three graphite
electrodes are used to generate
arc between electrode and
charged material.

High power consumption, but

electric-arc furnaces can be
designed for high melting
capacity Used primarily for
melting steel
 Induction furnace
Induction furnace has the same principle as a transformer. A high- frequency current
is passed through a water-cooled coil which acts as the primary coil of a transformer.
The charge i.e. steel scrap or other conductive metal, acts as the secondary coil of a
transformer.
The high-frequency alternating current passing through the primary coil generates a
magnetic flux which cuts the secondary coil i.e. the metallic charge and induces an
electromotive force, emf, in the charge and the charge gets heated up due to eddy
current.

When the temperature rises above the

melting point of the metallic charge, it
changes to liquid phase and tapped out of
the furnace for further processing
 Induction furnace cont…

Chamber for
charge

Hollow
copper coil

Current input Lining

terminals

Since metal does not contact heating elements and the environment can be closely
controlled, which results in molten metals of high quality and purity. Melting steel,
cast iron, and aluminum alloys are common applications
 Crucible furnace
Metal is melted without direct contact with burning fuel mixture Sometimes
called indirect fuel-fired furnaces
Container (crucible) is made of refractory material or high-temperature steel
alloy
Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze, brass, and alloys of zinc and
aluminum
Three types used in foundries: (a) lift-out type, (b) stationary, (c) tilting

(a) lift-out crucible,

(b) stationary pot, from which molten metal must be ladled, and
(c) tilting-pot furnace
Summary of the melting furnace
 03. Type of casting
Common casting process

• Sand
• Die Widely used casting process
• Shell
• Plaster 1. Sand casting
• Centrifugal
2. Investment casting
• Squeeze
• Ceramic 3. Die casting
• Investment 4. Permanent mold casting
• Semi-solid 5. Centrifugal casting
• Single crystal 6. Shell mold casting
• Lost foam 7. Continuous
• Pressure
• Directional solidification
• Vacuum
• Slush
• Continuous
 1. Sand casting
Description: Sand mixture is packed into wood or metal pattern halves,
removed form the pattern, and assembled with or without cores, then
metal is poured into resultant cavities. Various core materials can be used.
Molds are broken to remove castings.

pattern
cope

drag

Sand mixture: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7%bendanite clay. Other bonding agents phenolic resins, sodium silicate,
phosphate
Pattern: Shape of final casting, used to create mold, in Sand molding sand is packed around pattern
Core: Pattern which creates internal features
 Various features of a sand mold

Cope : Top half of the sand mold setup (flask, mold, pattern, and/or core)
Drag : Bottom half of the sand mold setup
Gates : Controlled and entrances the fluid flow to cavities
Gating system : Network of channels to deliver material to cavities
Core : Pattern which creates internal features(sand and binders)
Vent : To remove trapped air and generated gases
Riser : Provides compensation for shrinkage
Sprue : is a vertical channel though which the molten metal flows downward
in the mold

Pattern : Top half of the sand mold setup (flask, mold, pattern, and/or core)

(a) solid pattern

(b) split pattern
(c) match-plate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern
Sand molding steps

ytikty
Sand Casting foundry
 2. Investment casting
(a),(b) Wax pattern by injection molding

(c) Multiple patterns assembled to wax sprue

(d) Immerse into ceramic slurry (silica,

powdered Zircon (ZrSiO4 )

(e) Immerse into fine sand

(f) Completed mold cavity fills with the wax

(g) Fire the ceramic and melt out the wax

(h) Pour molten metal

(i) Break ceramic shell

(j) Cut off parts

 3. Die casting
The molten metal is forced into the die casting at pressure ranging from 0.7Mpa to
700Mpa
Typical parts made through die casting are automotive parts, hand tools and toys.
The weight of most castings ranges from 90g to about 25kg.
There are two main type of die-casting
1.Hot-chamber die-casting
2.Cold-chamber die-casting

Hot-chamber die-casting
Hot-chamber process involves the use of
a piston which traps a certain volume of
molten metal and forces it into the die
cavity. pressure ranges up to 35Mpa.The
metal is held under pressure until it
solidifies in the die.
 3. Die casting cont…
Cold-chamber die-casting
In the cold chamber process molten metal is poured in to the injection cylinder(shot
chamber). The shot chamber is not heated , hence the term cold chamber. The
metal is forced in to the die cavity at pressure usually ranging from 70Mpa to
150Mpa.
 4. Permanent mold casting
Two halves of a mold are made from materials such as iron, steel, bronze, or
other alloys.
The mold cavity and gating system are machined in to the mold
Mechanical ejectors are used to remove complex parts
Mold surface may coated with refractory material

Can obtain higher production rates

Good surface finish
Widely used for cast Cu, Bronze, Al, Mg
Mold cost is high
Simple part geometries
Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
 5. Centrifugal casting
The centrifugal casting process utilizes the inertia forces caused by rotation to
distribute the molten metal into the mold cavity. There are three types of centrifugal
castings 1. True centrifugal casting
2. Semi centrifugal casting
3. Centrifuging casting

a b c
(a) Schematic illustration of the centrifugal casting process. Pipes, cylinder liners, and
similarly shaped parts can be cast with this process. (b) Schematic illustration of the semi
centrifugal casting process. Wheels with spokes can be cast by this process. (c) Schematic
illustration of casting by centrifuging. The molds are placed at the periphery of the machine,
and the molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal force.
 6. Shell mold casting

(a) A pattern is placed over a box containing a sand and resin mixture
(b) The box is inverted and a shell is formed around the pattern
(c) The box is righted, the top is removed, and placed an oven to further strength
(d) The shell is removed from the pattern
(e) Matched shells are joined and supported in a flask ready to pouring
 7. Continues casting
This casting process different from above casting process
A water cooled mold is used to make a long casting of constant cross section
Liquid metal is poured into the open mold against a starter block
 7. Continues
casting cont…
Argon gas is blowers to avoid
the oxidation.
Oil is poured for lubrication of
the mold surfaces
Tundish is used to separate
slag in the molten metals
X-ray sensors are used to
detect level of the molted metal
pool
Blooms billets and slabs are
produced using this casting
process
Then these blooms billets and
slabs are further shaped in to
various products using rolling
operations
7. Continues casting cont…
Costs Comparison for Different Casting Processes

Kalpakjian
 Different Casting Processes

Process Advantages Disadvantages Examples

Sand many metals, sizes, shapes, cheap poor finish & tolerance engine blocks,
cylinder heads
Shell mold better accuracy, finish, higher limited part size connecting rods, gear
production rate housings
Investment complex shapes, excellent finish small parts, expensive Jewellery, toys

Permanent good finish, low porosity, high Costly mold, simpler gears, gear housings
mold production rate shapes only
Die Excellent dimensional accuracy, costly dies, small parts, gears, camera bodies,
high production rate non-ferrous metals car wheels
Centrifugal Large cylindrical parts, good Expensive, few shapes pipes, boilers,
quality flywheels, gears
sprockets
 04. Mathematical analysis of casting
Energy need for casting
Energy required Latent heat of Energy required
Total
Heat = to take solid to
melting
+ fusion (energy
required to break
+ to take liquid to
pouring
energy temperature bonds) temperature

H  V {Cs (Tm  T )  H f  Cl (Tp  Tm )}

Tm Melting temperature T Starting temperature

 Density Hf Latent heat of fusion

V Volume Tp Pouring temperature

Cl Specific heat of liquid Cs Specific heat of solid

 Solidification time
Chvorinov’s rule: the solidification time needed for the molten metal to
completely solidify in the cavity is estimated by

V n
TST  C m ( )
A
TST: total solidification time, min
V: volume of the casting, in.3 (cm3)
A: surface area of the casting, in.2 (cm2)
N: exponent, (2 for sand casting)
Cm: mold constant, min.in.2 (min/cm2)

Cm is a function of mold material ,thermal properties of the cast metal, pouring

temperature relative to the melting point of the metal.
Determination of Cm can be done through experiment.
 Time need to fill the cavity
Q  A1V1 h1
Volume V V
Mold Filling Time  MFT   
Flow rate Q A2V2
According to the Bernoulli’s theorem at any two
points in a flowing liquid
V h2

Q  A2V2
P1 v12 P2 v 22
h1    F1  h2    F2
 2g  2g
By assuming friction is same and pressure difference is zero

v22 V
h1  h2  h 
2g v2  2 gh MFT 
A 2 gh
Bernoulli’s theorem: an increase in the speed of the fluid occurs simultaneously
with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy
Casting: Riser Design
Consideration for riser design
Riser must remain molten metal until casting is completely solidified
Riser should have enough liquid metal to feed casting shrinkage
Riser should be kept at proper distance from the casting

Chvorinov’s Rule
• Solidification time = C * (V/A)n Riser
• C = mold constant
• n = 1.5 – 2.0
• V = volume of casting
• A = surface area of casting

T-riser = 1.25 * T-casting

Riser and mold cavity:

• Risers used to supply molten metal to mold cavity as casting solidifies
• Riser must solidify after casting: T-riser = 1.25 * T-casting
• Mold constant is the same for riser and casting
• Rises are design with minimum surface area to increase solidification time
 05. Casting defects
• The defects can be classified as follows:
- Defects common to all casting processes
- Defects related to sand casting process

1. Misrun
A casting that has solidified before
completely filling mold cavity
2. Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together
but there is a lack of fusion due to
premature freezing

3. Cold Shot
Metal splatters(shaking) during pouring
and solid globules form and become
entrapped in casting
4. Shrinkage Cavity
Depression in surface or internal void caused
by solidification shrinkage that restricts amount
of molten metal available in last region to freeze

5. Sand Blow
Balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by
release of mold gases during pouring
6. Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or
slightly below surface of casting

7. Penetration
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may
penetrate into sand mold or sand core,
causing casting surface to consist of a
mixture of sand grains and metal
8. Mold Shift
A step in cast product at parting line caused
by sidewise relative displacement of cope
and drag
Home work
Read the
Chapter10 Fundamentals of metal-casting
Chapter 11 Metal-casting processes
Chapter 12 Metal casting : Design, Materials and Economics
In
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
By
Serope Kalpakjian
Steven R. Schmid