Laser Beam Machining

(LBM)
 Introduction

• LASER or laser (Light Amplification by

Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is a
mechanism for emitting electromagnetic
radiation, often visible light, via the process of
stimulated emission.
Light Amplification Stimulated Emission Radiation

A laser is simply a mechanically constructed

tool which amplifies the process of
“stimulated emission”.

Emission (already covered) is when an

electron jumps down a quantum energy level
and emits light of energy E = hf.

Stimulated emission is when a second

photon hits an already excited atom
releasing two photons instead of one. That is
the original one and the one formed from
the transition of an energy level

This means that if we can get a medium

excited enough or “pumped” where lots of NB. The time photons spend in
atoms are excited or “population inversion” an excited state is usually
then we can create a cascade effect and measured as an average of
produce a large number of photons in phase many emissions.
Index
Mr Powell 2008
 Laser Physics
• This process is known as SPONTANEOUS EMISSION
• The atom emits light spontaneously, without
external influences.
• If however the atom is not isolated, other effects
may occur. Photons of the same energy as the
energy of the upper level may use their energy to
move an electron from the lower level to the
upper one.
• This is known as ABSORBTION, as the photon is
destroyed in the process.
 Laser Physics

• If a photon of the correct energy passes an atom with its

electron in the upper level, then it may cause the electron
to fall to the lower level.

• This STIMULATED EMISSION is very different from

spontaneous emission.
• In the spontaneous process the photon may travel in any
direction and be emitted at any time, Stimulated emission,
however, causes the emitted photon to travel in the
identical direction to the passing photon and at the same
time.
Laser Physics
 Stimulated Emission Summary
Excited atoms can give out two photons at once in an emission
instead of the usual one in “Stimulated Emission”.

We can also work out the wavelength of photons as we know that

that; c = 

NB: in this case “” is used to represent frequency it is not v = velocity You
will only see the version with f in your exam! Mr Powell 2008
Index
 Laser Summary
We put energy into the atom and
excite an electron to pump it to Level
4

The energy gets quickly transferred

to the Neon metastable state.
Population Inversion!

All electrons move down at the same

time producing photons in phase E
= hf according to transition.

The key point you need to know for

your exam is that the “pumped” state
is short lived i.e. 10-8s but the
metastable state is much longer i.e.
10-3s so the electrons stack up here
and produce a “population inversion”
Index
Mr Powell 2008
 Lasing Action
1. Energy is applied to a medium raising electrons to an unstable energy
level.
2. These atoms spontaneously decay to a relatively long-lived, lower
energy, metastable state.
3. A population inversion is achieved when the majority of atoms have
reached this metastable state.
4. Lasing action occurs when an electron spontaneously returns to its
ground state and produces a photon.
5. If the energy from this photon is of the precise wavelength, it will
stimulate the production of another photon of the same wavelength
and resulting in a cascading effect.
6. The highly reflective mirror and partially reflective mirror continue the
reaction by directing photons back through the medium along the long
axis of the laser.
7. The partially reflective mirror allows the transmission of a small
amount of coherent radiation that we observe as the “beam”.
8. Laser radiation will continue as long as energy is applied to the lasing
medium.
9
 Lasing Action Diagram

Excited State
Spontaneous
Energy
Emission
Metastable State
Introduction

Stimulated
Energy

Emission of
Radiation

Ground State
10
 Characteristics of Lasers
 The light emitted from a laser is monochromatic,
that is, it is of one color/wavelength. In contrast,
ordinary white light is a combination of many colors
(or wavelengths) of light.
 Lasers emit light that is highly directional, that is,
laser light is emitted as a relatively narrow beam in a
specific direction. Ordinary light, such as from a light
bulb, is emitted in many directions away from the
source.
 The light from a laser is said to be coherent, which
means that the wavelengths of the laser light are in
phase in space and time. Ordinary light can be a
mixture of many wavelengths. 11
 Ordinary light vs. Laser Light

1. Many wavelengths 1. Monochromatic

2. Multidirectional 2. Directional
3. Incoherent 3. Coherent
12
 Essential components of a laser system

Active medium or Gain medium : It is the system in which

population inversion and hence stimulated emission (laser
action) is established.

Active Pumping Optical

Medium Mechanism resonator

Pumping mechanism : It is the mechanism by which

population inversion is achieved.
i.e., it is the method for raising the atoms from lower energy
state to higher energy state to achieve laser transition.

13
 DIFFERENT PUMPING MECHANISMS

i. Optical pumping : Exposure to electromagnetic radiation of

frequency  = (E2-E1)/h obtained from discharge flash tube results
in pumping Suitable for solid state lasers.
ii. Electrical discharge : By inelastic atom-atom collisions,
population inversion is established.
Suitable for Gas lasers
iii. Chemical pumping : By suitable chemical reaction in the active
medium, population of excited state is made higher compared to
that of ground state Suitable for liquid lasers.
iv. Optical resonator : A pair of mirrors placed on either side of the
active medium is known as optical resonator. One mirror is
completely silvered and the other is partially silvered. The laser
beam comes out through the partially silvered mirror.

14
 Components of all Lasers
1. Active Medium
The active medium may be solid crystals such as ruby or Nd:YAG, liquid dyes,
gases like CO2 or Helium/Neon, or semiconductors such as GaAs. Active
mediums contain atoms whose electrons may be excited to a metastable
energy level by an energy source.

2. Excitation Mechanism
Excitation mechanisms pump energy into the active medium by one or more
of three basic methods; optical, electrical or chemical.

3. High Reflectance Mirror

A mirror which reflects essentially 100% of the laser light.

4. Partially Transmissive Mirror

A mirror which reflects less than 100% of the laser light and transmits the
remainder.
Operating principle
Optical resonance
 Types of Lasers
Based on its pumping action:
• Optically pumped laser
• Electrically pumped laser
• Basis of the operation mode
• Continuous wave Lasers
• Pulsed Lasers
According to their wavelength :
• Visible Region, Infrared Region, Ultraviolet Region, Microwave
Region, X-Ray Region and etc.,
According to the source :
• Dye Lasers, Gas Lasers, Chemical Lasers, Metal vapour
Lasers, Solid state Lasers, Semi conductor Lasers and other
UNIT III Lecture 3
18
types.
 Laser Output
Continuous Output (CW) Pulsed Output (P)

Energy (Joules)
Energy (Watts)

                       

Time Time
 Continuous wave, pulsed mode (nano, pico and femto second lasers).
 In CW lasers, continuous pumping of the laser emits light, while in a
pulsed laser, there is a laser power-off period between two successive
pulses.
 Pulsed lasers are preferred for machining as the processing
19
parameters can be more effectively controlled compared to continuous
 Types of machining laser
• Gas Laser
– Carbon dioxide
• Optically pumped solid-state Laser
 Gas Laser

• Common gas laser are CO2 Gas Laser, He-Ne

Gas Laser
 CO2 LASER

Introduction :
CO2 lasers belong to the class of molecular gas lasers.
In the case of atoms, electrons in molecules can be
excited to higher energy levels, and the distribution of
electrons in the levels define the electronic state of the
molecule.
Besides, these electronic levels, the molecules have other
energy levels.
C.K.N. Patel designed CO2 laser in the year 1964.

22
 CO2 LASER
Active medium :
It consists of a mixture of CO2, N2 and helium or water
vapour. The active centres are CO2 molecules lasing on the
transition between the rotational levels of vibrational
bands of the electronic ground state.
.

Optical resonators :
A pair of concave mirrors placed on either side of the
discharge tube, one completely polished and the other
partially polished.

23
 CO2 LASER
Pumping :
Population inversion is created by electric discharge of
the mixture.
When a discharge is passed in a tube containing CO2,
electron impacts excite the molecules to higher
electronic and vibrational-rotational levels.
This level is also populated by radiationless transition
from upper excited levels.
The resonant transfer of energy from other molecules,
such as, N2, added to the gas, increases the pumping
efficiency.
24
 CO2 LASER
 Nitrogen here plays the role that He plays in He-Ne
laser.

 A carbon dioxide (CO2) laser can produce a

continuous laser beam with a power output of
several kilowatts while, at the same time, can
maintain high degree of spectral purity and spatial
coherence.

 In comparison with atoms and ions, the energy level

structure of molecules is more complicated and
originates from three sources: electronic motions,
vibrational motions and rotational motions. 25
Carbon dioxide laser
 CO2 LASER
 The power output of a CO2 laser increases linearly
with length. Low power (upto 50W) continuous wave
CO2 lasers are available in sealed tube configurations.
 Some are available in sizes like torches for medical use,
with 10-30 W power.
 All high power systems use fast gas-floe designs.
 Typical power per unit length is 200-600 W/m.
 Some of these lasers are large room sized metal
working lasers with output power 10-20 kW.
 Recently CO2 lasers with continuous wave power
output exceeding 100 kW.
 The wavelength of radiation from these lasers is
10.6m. 27
He-Ne Gas Laser
 Solid State Laser

• Constructed by doping a rare earth element into a

variety of host materials
• Pumped optically by arc lamps or flashlamps
• Nd:YAG is the most common host material
 Nd: YAG Laser (Doped insulator laser)

Lasing medium :
The host medium for this laser is Yttrium Aluminium
Garnet (YAG = Y3 Al5 O12) with 1.5% trivalent
neodymium ions (Nd3+) present as impurities.

The (Nd3+) ions occupy the lattice sites of yttrium

ions as substitutional impurities and provide the
energy levels for both pumping and lasing
transitions.

30
Contd.
When an (Nd3+) ion is placed in a host crystal
lattice it is subjected to the electrostatic field of the
surrounding ions, the so called crystal field.

The crystal field modifies the transition

probabilities between the various energy levels of
the Nd3+ ion so that some transitions, which are
forbidden in the free ion, become allowed.

31
Nd: YAG laser

32
 The length of the Nd: YAG laser rod various from
5cm to 10cm depending on the power of the laser
and its diameter is generally 6 to 9 mm.
The laser rod and a linear flash lamp are housed in a
elliptical reflector cavity
Since the rod and the lamp are located at the foci of
the ellipse, the light emitted by the lamp is effectively
coupled to the rod.
The ends of the rod are polished and made optically
flat and parallel.

33
Contd.
• The optical cavity is formed either by silvering the
two ends of the rod or by using two external
reflecting mirrors.

• One mirror is made hundred percent reflecting

while the other mirror is left slightly transmitting to
draw the output

• The system is cooled by either air or water

circulation.

34
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS :
The laser output is in the form of pulses with higher
repetition rate

Xenon flash lamps are used for pulsed output.

Nd: YAG laser can be operated in CW mode also

using tungsten-halide incandescent lamp for optical
pumping.

Continuous output powers of over 1KW are

obtained.
35
Note: Nd: Glass laser :
Glass acts as an excellent host material for neodymium.

As in YAG, within the glass also local electric fields

modify the Nd3+ ion energy levels.

Since the line width is much broader in glass than in YAG

for Nd3+ ions, the threshold pump power required for
laser action is higher.

Nd: Glass lasers are operated in the pulsed mode at

wavelength 1.06 m
UNIT III Lecture 3
36
Nd:YAG/ Nd: Glass laser applications :
These lasers are used in many scientific applications which
involve generation of other wavelengths of light.

The important industrial uses of YAG and glass lasers have

been in materials processing such as welding, cutting,
drilling.

Since 1.06 m wavelength radiation passes through

optical fibre without absorption, fibre optic endoscopes
with YAG lasers are used to treat gastrointestinal bleeding.

37
Contd.
• YAG beams penetrate the lens of the eye to perform
intracular procedures.
• YAG lasers are used in military as range finders and
target designators.

38
 Optically pumped solid state lasers
• The active atoms of the laser medium are
embedded in a solid, typically a rod of crystal or
glass, with parallel, flat ends which are optically
ground and polished. The rod may have coated
ends to form the optical cavity needed;
alternatively external mirrors can be used.
E.G. Ruby laser
The three-level-type lasing action in a ruby laser requires high
pumping, normally provided by pulsing action. The typical
output wavelength and power of the ruby laser are
respectively 0.6943 m and 400J.
 Nd:YAG Laser
• Nd:YAG lasers are solid state lasers that use dopants
(Neodinium (Nd3+)) dispersed in a crystalline matrix
(complex crystal of Yttrium–Aluminum–Garnet (YAG) with
chemical composition Y3Al5O12) to generate laser light.
• Excitation is attained by krypton or xenon flash lamps and
an output wavelength of 1.06 µm in the near-infrared
region of the spectrum can be obtained.
• Nd:YAG fibre lasers are used in applications requiring low
pulse repetition rate and high pulse energies (up to 100
J/pulse) such as hole piercing and deep keyhole welding
applications.
Nd:YAG Laser
Process characteristics of different lasers
 Laser machining - Introduction
• Interaction of an intense, highly directional,
coherent, and monochromatic beam of light
with a workpiece, from which material is
removed by vaporization.
Laser power intensity
 Laser Beam Machining
Optical Unit
• Mirrors direct the beam from the source down to the lens

• the lens then focuses the beam into the desired geometry

• finally the assist gas is added to remove the molten metal

 Laser Beam
Laser Surface Texturing Machining
 Effect of laser on materials
 When the laser beam meets the workpiece, several effects
arise, including reflection, absorption, and conduction of the
light energy.
 Material removal by melting and vaporization.
Various physical phenomena during laser
 Reflectivity
 The amount by which the beam is reflected depends
on the wavelength of the laser radiation, and on the
condition and properties of the material, such as its
surface finish, the amount to which it is oxidized,
and its temperature.
 In particular, the high reflectivity of many materials
at certain laser wavelengths renders them
unsuitable for machining.
 Generally, the longer the wavelength of the laser
beam, the higher becomes the reflectivity of metals.
 Absorption
 Laser energy which is not reflected at the surface is
absorbed into the material.
 The absorption of the light in metals takes place by
an internal photo-electric effect which raises the
electrons to higher energy states in the conduction
band of the metal.
 The mean free time between collisions for electrons
in a conductor is of the order of 10-14 to 10-13 s. Thus
in 1 nanosecond (ns), the electrons will have made
1014 to 1015 collisions among themselves.
 Since this is a very short period compared to even
the shortest laser pulse, the energy absorbed by the
electrons from the laser beam is rapidly passed to
the lattice.
 Conduction
 The conduction of the heat from the laser into the
workpiece material is an extremely complex effect -
no adequate theory yet.
 Since the workpiece is assumed to be composed of
an isotropic material, the heat flow through it can be
described by the diffusion equation: T/ t =  2 T
 Here T is absolute temperature (K) and t is time (s).
, the diffusivity, is given by  = k /  c
k is the coefficient of thermal conductivity (Wm-1 K-1),
 is the density (kgm-3), and c the specific heat (J kg-
K ) of the solid material.
1 -1
 Melting
 For heat fluxes of 10-4 Wcm-2, melting times of
about 0.1 seconds are common. Melting times
are proportional to the square of the incident
power.
 Vaporisation
 Very rapidly after melting by the laser, vaporization
of the workpiece surface commences. The rate of
vaporization may be related to the incident flux F of
the laser by the expression F = (dx/dt)C
where (dx/dt) is rate of recession of the workpiece
surface, and C is the energy needed to vaporize a
unit volume of the workpiece. Typically C is about
103 Jcm-3.
 Plastic vs metal machining
 Comparatively low energy is needed to vaporize
plastics, compared with metals.
 Radiation of the wavelength of the CO2 laser (10.6 m)
is readily absorbed by most non-metals, which also
usually have low thermal conductivity.
 Thus, plastic materials can be readily melted by low
power (several watts) CO2 lasers. They can be cut at
high speeds with slightly higher powers.
 For instance, a 400W CO2 laser can cut through 0.1
mm thick plastic at a rate of more than 4 ms-1.
 Since metals have a higher reflectivity and thermal
conductivity than plastics, greater power densities are
usually needed to cut them.
Cutting speeds in CO2 LBM
 Gas-assistance of the laser
 The gas jet is normally directed with the laser beam into the
interaction region to remove the molten material from the
machining region and obtain a clean cut.
 Assist gases also shield the lens from the expelled material by
setting up a high-pressure barrier at the nozzle opening.
 Pure oxygen causes rapid oxidation and exothermic reactions,
causing better process efficiency.
 The selection of air, oxygen, or an inert gas depends on the
workpiece material and thickness.
 An inert gas such as helium or argon should be used if a cut
edge of a better quality is required.
 Gas pressure also plays a significant part in the determination
of quality and rate of machining.
Gas-assistance of the laser
 Gas-assistance of the laser
 The efficiency of metal machining by laser is often
increased by oxygen-assisted gas cutting.
 This technique is based on the exploitation of
exothermic chemical reactions, which are utilized in
the well-established oxy-acetylene torch cutting of
metals.
 With the latter effect, the initial melting and oxidation
of the metal are caused by the heat from the torch.
 The cutting is achieved by the release of heat from the
oxidation process, and the flow of the gas stream also
contributes, by removing the oxide from the cutting
area.
Laser Beam Machining

Fig : Working of a solid-state laser

 Laser Beam Machining
 Uses light energy from
a laser to remove
material by vaporization
and ablation
 Energy is concentrated
optically
 Light beam pulsed so
that the released energy
results in an impulse
against the work
surface, producing
evaporation and melting
 Laser Cutting

 Cutting starts by drilling a

hole by moving beam
 Cutting speed depends
on material and thickness
 Both pulsed and
continuous laser is used
 Thickness ranges from
0.5-1 inch
 Used for cutting complex
geometry and for clean
cutting operation
 Laser Welding
 For welding ceramics and dissimilar materials
like steel and aluminium
 Produces maximum penetration and minimum
distortion in materials
 Beam can be easily shaped, focused and
directed
 Application
 Razor Blade
 Electronic Circuit
Laser welding of steel on aluminum
 Laser Cladding

 Used to improve surface

quality by applying a
corrosion resistant layer on
product
 Laser beam is used to create
a shallow melt pool
 Metal powder is supply using
an inert gas flow
 Application
 Chemical industry
 Mining and marine application
 Applications

 Drilling
 Cutting
 Scribing
 Controlled fracturing
 Trimming of electronic components
Applications
Laser Applications
 Wood
 Paper
 Leather
 Glass
 Ceramic
 Metal

Steel, Titanium, Paper, Wax, Plastic, Fabric

Applications
Laser Assisted Machining (LAM)

Steel, Titanium, Paper, Wax, Plastic, Fabric

• Current Uses of Laser Cutting Systems

• Primarily 2D Systems

• Either melts, burns, or vaporizes away material

• Used to cut flat-sheet metal and

piping/structural materials
Laser Surface Treatment Processes

An outline of laser surface-engineering processes. Source: After N. B. Dahotre.

Applications

Few References: George Chryssolouris, J.C Rozzi,

Y.C.Shin, B.P.Bandyopadhyay,S.Jahanmir,
S.Harimkar, A.Samant, N.Dahotre
Bio Implant
 Advantages of LBM
 In laser machining there is no physical tool. Thus no
machining force or wear of the tool takes place.
 Large aspect ratio in laser drilling can be achieved
along with acceptable accuracy or dimension, form or
location
 Micro-holes can be drilled in difficult – to – machine
materials
 Though laser processing is a thermal processing but
heat affected zone specially in pulse laser processing
is not very significant due to shorter pulse duration.
 Disadvantages
 High initial capital cost
 High maintenance cost
 Not very efficient process
 Presence of Heat Affected Zone –
specially in gas assist CO2 laser cutting
 Thermal process – not suitable for heat
sensitive materials like aluminum glass
fiber laminate
 Parameter Affecting LBM
Working Material Assist Gas
LBM
• Type • Type
• Surface • Pressure
Reflectivity Laser Pulse • Nozzle
• Thickness
• Pulse Shape
• Frequency
Environment • Wavelength Focusing Lens
• Beam
• Humidity • Focal Length
Divergence
• Temperature • Duration • Focal Position
Effect of process parameters

Fig. The ablation rates (material removal rates) of laser micromachining vs. laser
fluences (energy densities)
Effect of process parameters

Fig. Effect of beam profile.

 Effect of process parameters

Fig. Variation of surface roughness with laser power and feed rate (cutting speed)
during CO2 laser cutting of 1.27mm steel sheet.
Effect of process parameters

Fig. Kerf width with laser output power at various cutting speeds
 Material removal in LBM
 Machining by laser occurs when the power
density of the beam is greater than what is
lost by conduction, convection, and radiation,
and moreover, the radiation must penetrate
and be absorbed into the material.
 The power density of the laser beam, Pd, is
given by
Material removal in LBM
 Material removal in LBM

where Pd = power density, W/cm2

Lp = laser power, W
Fl = focal length of lens, cm
ΔT = pulse duration of laser, s
α = beam divergence, rad
Cl = constant depending on the material and conversion efficiency
Ev = vaporization energy of the material, W/mm3
A = area of laser beam at focal point, mm
b 2

h = thickness of material, mm
d = spot size diameter, mm
s