Chapter 4: Source Models

Qm Qm 2

Q m1

1
 Chapter 4:
Learning Objectives
1. Explain why and how source models are used in
risk assessment.
2. Describe simple source models for liquids and
gases: holes, pipe flow, pools.
3. Describe more complex source models: holes in
tanks.
4. Distinguish between realistic and worst-case
releases.
5. Perform conservative analysis.

2
 Source Models
• What: Describe how material
escapes from a process
• Why: Required to determine
potential consequences of an
accident

Risk = f(probability/likelihood, consequence )

3
What do Source Models Provide?

• Release rate, mass/time

• Total amount released
• State of material: liquid, solid, gas,
combination
• Other information specific to the
situation.

4
 Selection of
Consequence Release Incident

Models Selection of
Source Model
to Describe Chapter 4
Release Incident

Figure 4-1
Selection of
Dispersion Model Chapter 5

Flammable Toxic
Flammable
and/or Toxic?

Chapter 6 Selection of Selection of Chapter 2

Fire and Effect Model
Explosion Model

Mitigation
Factors

Consequence
Model
5
Release Mechanisms - 1

6
 Release Mechanism Parameters
Nature of release depends on lots of parameters:
1. Temperature and pressure of released material.
2. Composition of released material.
3. Ambient temperature and pressure.
4. Ambient wind speed, ground surface, release
height.
5. Geometry of release (hole, rupture, catastrophic
failure)
6. Vapor – Liquid – Equilibrium of released material.
7. Velocity of release.
8. Many others! 7
 Source Models
1. Flow of liquid through a hole
2. Flow of liquid through a hole in a tank
3. Flow of liquids through pipes
4. Flow of gases or vapor through holes
5. Flow of gases or vapor through pipes
6. Flashing liquids
7. Liquid pool evaporation or boiling

We will cover items 1 thru 6 in this course.

More complex models can be developed

from these simple models.
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 Source Model: Liquid thru a hole

P1 > P2

Physical Facts:
1. Pressure is the driving force.
2. Pressure energy is converted to kinetic energy.
3. Losses due to liquid flow.
9
 Mechanical Energy Balance for
Incompressible flow
2
P u g Ws
  z  F  
 2 gc gc m Eq. 4-1

P  is the pressure (force/area),

ρ  is the fluid density (mass/volume),
ū  is the average instantaneous velocity of the fluid (length/time2),
gc is the gravitational constant (length mass/force time2),
g  is the acceleration due to gravity (length/time2),
z  is the height above datum (length),
F  is the net frictional loss term (length force/mass),
Ws is the shaft work (force length/time), defined as the positive
work done by the system on the surroundings, and
m˙ is the mass flow rate (mass/time). 10
 Gravitational Constant, gc

It is mistakenly believed that the gravitational

constant is only required in the English unit system.

This is absolutely incorrect!

For English units: 32.17 ( lbm·ft)/(lbf·s2)

For SI units: 1 (kg-m/s2)/N

Indeed, for SI units it has a numerical value of 1, but

it still has units! Failure to use the gravitational
constant in SI calculations is very likely to result in
incorrect units.

Use units in all calculations, including SI! 11

 P u 2 g Ws
  z  F  
 2 gc gc m

 P  Pressure energy.

2
 u Kinetic energy.
2 gc
g  z  Potential energy due to changes in height.
gc
F Frictional losses.

Ws  Mechanical Energy from pumps / turbines

m 12
 Make Assumptions for Hole:
Horizontal:
No Pumps / turbines:
F 0

Solve ME balance for u

Apply: Q m   uA
 
k g m
 
Q m  3 s   m   k g /s
 2
 
m


 

 
13
 Orifice Discharge Equation

Qm  C o A 2  g c  P Eq. 4-7

Co= Discharge coefficient accounts for

friction
= 1 ---> conservative result
= 0.61 for turbulent flow of liquids.
Rules for Discharge Coefficient:
1.If it is any liquid being discharge under turbulent conditions,
then assume 0.61.
2.If you wish to get a conservative result, then assume 1.0.
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 Orifice Discharge Coefficient

0.700

0.650

0.600

0.550
Discharge Coefficient

0.500

0.450

0.400

0.350

0.300

0.250

0.200
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Reynolds Number

15
See older Perry’s for more details!
 Example
1-inch diameter hole
100 psig upstream pressure
Water 2
  
    1 ft 

 3 .1 4   1 in  
    1 2 in
A  D 2
    
 5 .4 5  1 0  3 ft 2
4 4
C o  0 .61 fo r high ly turb ulent flow

 P  1 0 0 p sig  0 p sig  1 0 0 p si= 1 0 0 lb f / in 2

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 Substitute in Orifice Equation
Qm  Co A 2  g c  P
   
lb  
 2    2   6 2 .4
Qm  0.61 5.45103 ft
 lb m 
3 2 .1 7 ft-lb m 
 10 0 f   1 4 4 in 2 
      
  
  

ft 3  

2
lb f  s   in 2   ft 2 
 

Qm  25.3 lbm / s

This is 11. 5 Kg/sec.

The discharge velocity is 74 ft/sec!

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 Hole in a Tank
= Ambient Pressure
Pg

Hydrostatic
hL
Head

Pressure at hole due to hydrostatic head

plus ambient pressure.
Flow is maximum at t = 0 Flow
and decreases with time.

18 0 Time
  gc Pg 
Qm   ACo 2   ghL  Eq. 4-12
  
 

Qm  mass flow rate

  liquid density
A  hole area
C o  discharge coefficient
g c  gravitational constant
Pg  gauge pressure in vapor space
g  acceleration due to gravity
hL  liquid height above hole.
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 Hole in a Tank
Mass balance: Accumulation = -Output

d (total mass in tank)


dt

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 Hole in a Tank
Can solve above equations to determine:
Discharge rate as a function of time:
 g c Pg o
  gCo2 A2
Qm =  Co A 2  + ghL   t
   At
 
Liquid level as a function of time.
2
o Co A 2g c Pg g  Co A 
hL = hL  + 2ghLo t +  t
At  2  At 

Total emptying or draining time.

1  At    g c Pg o
 2g c Pg 

te =   2  +ghL  
Co g  A       
  
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 Liquid Flow Thru Pipes

P1 > P2

Physical Facts:

1. Pressure is

2. Velocity is

3. Losses due to

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 Mechanical Energy Balance for Pipe Flow
2
P u g Ws
  z  F  
 2gc gc m
P
 P re s s u re E n e r g y

2
u
 K in e tic E n e r g y ( K E )
2gc
g
 z  P o te n tia l E n e rg y ( P E )
gc
F  F ric tio n a l L o s s e s
W s / m  S h a ft W o rk fro m M e c h a n ic a l L in k a g e 23
Frictional Losses for Pipe Flow - 1
 u2 
F  Kf  
 2 gc 
where K f is the excess head loss
 u2 
  is the velocity head
 2 gc 
4 fL
For pipe lengths: K f 
d
where f is the Fanning friction factor
L is the pipe length
d is the pipe diameter
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 Fanning Friction Factor for Pipe Flow

Friction term, F, given by:

2 fL u 2
F  L  Pipe Length, gc = grav. constant
gcd
u  Liquid ave. velocity, d  Pipe diam.

f 
= f(Reynolds No, pipe roughness)
Differs from Moody friction factor!

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Pipe Roughness Factor, ε
Typical ε
Pipe Material Condition mm inch
Drawn brass, copper, stainless New 0.002 0.00008
Commercial steel New 0.046 0.0018
Light rust 0.3 0.015
General rust 2.0 0.08
Iron Wrought, new 0.045 0.0018
Cast, new 0.30 0.025
Galvanized 0.15 0.006
Concrete Very smooth 0.04 0.0016
Wood floated, brushed 0.3 0.012
Rough, visible form marks 2.0 0.08
Glass or plastic Drawn tubing 0.002c 0.0008c
Rubber Smooth tubing 0.01 0.004
Wire reinforced 1.0 0.04
Fiberglassb 0.005 0.0002

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Fanning
Friction
Factor, f

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Single Equation for Fanning Friction Factor

1   /d 5.0452 log A 
=  4 log   
f  3.7065 Re 

  / d  1.1098
5.8506 
A  0.8981 
 2.8257 Re 

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 Frictional Losses for Pipe Flow

For pipe fittings use 2-K method from text,

K1  1 
Kf   K 1  
Re  IDinches 
where K1 and K  are dimensionless constants
Re is the Reynolds number
IDinches is the fitting diameter in inches
K1 important at low Re while K∞ important at
high Re.
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Fittings Description of Fitting
  K1 K
Elbows Standard (r/D = 1), threaded 800 0.40
90° Standard (r/D = 1), flanged/welded 800 0.25
  Long radius (r/D = 1.5), all types 800 0.20
  Mitered (r/D = 1.5): 1 weld (90°) 1000 1.15
  2 welds (45°) 800 0.35
  3 welds (30°) 800 0.30
  4 welds (22.5°) 800 0.27
  5 welds (18°) 800 0.25
45° Standard (r/D = 1), all types 500 0.20
  Long radius (r/D = 1.5) 500 0.15
  Mitered, 1 weld (45°) 500 0.25
  Mitered, 2 welds (22.5°) 500 0.15
180° Standard (r/D = 1), threaded 1000 0.60
  Standard (r/D = 1), flanged/welded 1000 0.35
  Long radius (r/D = 1.5), all types 1000 0.30
Tees      
Used as elbows Standard, threaded 500 0.70
  Long radius, threaded 800 0.40

30
       
Fittings Description of Fitting
  K1 K
Tees      
Used as elbows Standard, threaded 500 0.70
  Long radius, threaded 800 0.40
  Standard, flanged/welded 800 0.80
  Stub-in branch 1000 1.00
Run-through Threaded 200 0.10
  Flanged/welded 150 0.50
  Stub-in branch 100 0.00
Valves      
Gate, ball or plug Full line size, β = 1.0 300 0.10
  Reduced trim, β = 0.9 500 0.15
  Reduced trim, β = 0.8 1000 0.25
Globe Standard 1500 4.00
  Angle or Y-type 1000 2.00
Diaphragm Dam type 1000 2.00
Butterfly   800 0.25
Check Lift 2000 10.0
  Swing 1500 1.50
  Tilting disk 1000 0.50
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 Example – Horizontal Pipe, no fittings

KE  0  u  constant  u 2  0
z  0 since horizontal
Ws  0 since no pumps or turbines

P 2 fLu 2
 F  
 gc d

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Example:
What is pressure drop across 150 ft of 1-inch Sch.
40, new commercial steel pipe if flow = 30 gpm?
Viscosity = 1.0 cp (water), cp = centipoise

30 gpm 150 ft

Procedure:
1. Convert to appropriate units
2. Select equation and simplify to this situation
3. Determine Reynolds number and then f
4. Calculate answer and check if it makes sense.
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1. Convert to Appropriate Units

I.D. = 1.049" = 0.0874 ft = 26.6 mm

2 2
D (3.14)(0.0874 ft)
A   0.0060
4 4
 0.1337 ft  3

Qv  (30 gal/min)    4.011

 1 gal 
3
Qv 4.011 ft / min
u  2
 668 ft/min = 11.1
A 0.0060 ft

Note: Typical pipe liquid velocity about 10

ft/sec. 34
2. Select Equation:

Mechanical Energy Balance:

No Pumps:
Horizontal:
Velocity constant:

2 fLu 2
P   F  
 gc d
35
 3. Determine Reynolds No. and then
Friction Factor
Du 
Re  D  diam., u  velocity,

  density,   viscosity
1 cp = 6.72  10-4 lb m / ft-sec
(0.0874 ft)(11.1 ft/sec)  62.4 lb m / ft 3

Re =
6.72 10-4 lb m / ft-sec
4
Re  9.0110 (no units!)
36
3. Determine Reynolds No. and then
Friction Factor

From pipe roughness table,

  0.046 mm (pipe roughness)
Then
   0.046 mm
   0.00173
d  26.6 mm
From Fanning Friction factor figure
(or equation): f  0.00616
37
 4. Calculate Answer:

2
P 2 fLu
 F  
 gc d
2lb m
(2)(0.00616)(150 ft)(11.1 ft/s) (62.4 3 )
P  ft
ft lb m
(32.17 2
)(0.0874 ft)
lbf s
P   5052 lb f / ft 2  35.1 lb f / in 2 (psi)

38
General Pipe Flow Problem
For the general case, with fittings, changes in
elevation, pumps, etc., problem is by trial and
error.
Procedure:
1. Guess velocity
2. Compute Reynolds Number
3. Compute fitting head losses
4. Compute friction factor, f
5. Calculate velocity
6. Continue until guessed velocity = calculated
velocity.
Can all be done easily by spreadsheet!
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