507 33 Powerpoint-Slides Ch11 DRCS

Design of Reinforced
Concrete Structures
N. Subramanian
© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved.

Chapter 11
Design of Flat Plates and

Flat Slabs

Introduction
Two-way slabs directly supported on columns, called flat plates, are
preferred due to their relatively simple formwork and reinforcement
layout and the potential for shorter storey heights.
Flat plates also provide more flexibility in the layout of columns,

partitions, small openings, and so on.
The main limitation of flat plates is the problem posed by resisting

two-way shear around the columns, which is called the punching shear.
For heavy loads or long spans, flat slabs, which have drop panels
around the column (which provide additional resistance to shear), are
used (see Figs 11.1a–c).
Fig. 11.1 Flat slabs and flat plates (a) Flat slab with drop and column
head (b) Flat slab with column head (c) Flat slab with drop (d) Flat plate
Proportioning of Flat Slabs
Thickness of Slab
The thickness of flat slabs, similar to other two-way slabs, is generally

controlled by the span to effective depth ratio.
The minimum thickness of the slab should be 125 mm and the longer
span should be used in the calculation of the L/d ratio.

Drop Panel
A drop panel should be rectangular in plan and should adhere to the
following as per Clause 31.2 of IS 456 (see Fig. 11.2):
1. Project below the slab at least one-quarter of the adjacent slab
thickness.
2. Extend in each direction from the centre line of support a

distance not less than one-sixth of the panel length in that
direction.
3. For exterior panels, the width of the drop panel at a right angle
to the non-continuous edge and measured from the centre line
of columns should be equal to one-half the width of the drop
panel in the interior panels.
Drop Panels and Shear Caps
FIG. 11.2 Drop panels and shear caps provide increased shear
Strength (a) Drop panels (b) Shear cap

Column Heads
The columns supporting flat slabs should have a size of about one-
sixteenth the length of the longer span of the slab and about one-eighth
to one-ninth the storey height of the building.
Occasionally, the tops of columns will be flared outward as shown in

Fig. 11.1(a). The flared portion, called column head or column capital,
provides increased punching resistance and reduces the clear span.
The concrete in the column head should be placed at the same time
as the slab concrete.

Shear Caps
Shear caps or shear capitals are used to locally increase the thickness
of the slab.
Their horizontal projection from the face of the column must be

greater than their vertical projection below the slab (see Fig. 11.2b).
Shear caps are provided to a distance such that the shear capacity on
the critical perimeter outside the shear cap is greater than the applied
shear.
The failure of shear capital is accompanied by the sudden separation

of the shear capital from the slab along with brittle failure, hence they
are not recommended to increase the punching shear resistance.
Behaviour of Flat Slabs
The broad strips of the slab centred on the column lines in two
orthogonal directions, designated as column strips, normally act as
broad beams.
The strips at the middle of the slab, which do not pass through the
columns, are referred to as the middle strips.
A simplified scheme of column and middle strips of a typical flat slab

as adopted in the various codes of practice is shown in Fig. 11.3.
The column strips behave as continuous beams supported on

columns. The typical deflected shape of the interior panel of the flat
slab is also shown in Fig. 11.3.
Fig. 11.3 Division of flat slabs into column and middle strips

Unlike the beams of a slab-beam-column system, the column strips
are flexible; hence, the deflections of a flat slab are generally larger than
that of the more rigid beam-slab-column system.
From Fig. 11.3 the column strip AHD will have negative moment at
points A and D and positive moment at point H.
The middle strip EOG will have positive moments at points E, O, and G.
The middle strips are supported by the column strips, which in turn
transfer the load to the columns.
As the column strips are heavily loaded when compared to the middle
strips, they will carry higher bending moments than the middle strips.
Fig. 11.4 Variation of bending moment in flat slabs (a) Critical moment sections (b) Moment variation
along the span (c) Moment variation across the width of critical sections (d) Trajectories of principal
moments in flat slabs
At working loads the slabs have small deflections and stresses.
Upon loading, cracks appear first on the top surface of the slab near
the column, where maximum bending moment occurs, soon followed by
cracking in the mid-span at the bottom.
Further loading causes cracking and yield lines start to form at the end
regions.
Although the flexural capacity is significantly enhanced by the

minimum reinforcement provided in the slab for the purpose of crack
control at service loads, punching shear failure usually precedes a
complete flexural failure.
Typical Crack Pattern in Flat Plates
Fig. 11.5 Typical crack pattern in flat plates (a) At top (b) At bottom

Typical Crack Pattern in Flat Slabs
Fig. 11.6 Typical crack pattern in flat slabs with edge beams (a) At bottom (b) At top

Methods of Analysis
Two analysis methods are usually prescribed by the codes for flat slabs
and plates—the direct design method (DDM) and the equivalent frame
method (EFM).
These methods are primarily based on experience, supplemented by

elastic analysis and laboratory tests of a limited number of slab
geometries.
In both the DDM and EFM, a typical panel is divided, for the purpose
of design, into column strips and middle strips.

Methods of Analysis
Fig. 11.7 Division of interior and exterior slab panels into column and middle strips (a) Column
strip for L2 ≤ L1 (b) Column strip for L2a and L2b > L1

Direct Design Method
The DDM is a semi-empirical method and is applicable only when the
following conditions are met –Clause 31.4.1 of IS 456(see Fig. 11.8):
1. There should be a minimum of three continuous spans in each
direction.
2. The panels should be rectangular, and the ratio of the longer to

the shorter spans within a panel should not be greater than 2.0.
3. The successive span lengths (centre to centre of supports) in

each direction must not differ by more than one-third of the
longer span.

4. Columns may be offset to a maximum of 10 per cent of the span in
the direction of offset.
5. Loads must be due to gravity loads alone, which are uniformly

distributed over an entire panel, and the design imposed loads must
not exceed three times the dead load.
6. If beams are used on the column lines, the relative stiffness of the
beams in the two perpendicular directions given by the ratio
1L22/2L12 must be between 0.2 and 5.0, where  = EcbIb/EcsIs.
7. Redistribution of bending moments is permitted up to 10 per cent.

Fig. 11.8 Assumptions in direct design method

In the DDM, the bending moments are not computed but nominally
defined in the code, as functions of column stiffness, span lengths, and
design (dead and live) loads.
The total static moment is distributed longitudinally and transversely

among various regions of the slab (column and middle zones) based on
the panel (interior or exterior) and span (interior or exterior) conditions.
The total static moment was derived by Nichols in 1914 as (clause
31.4.2.2 of IS 456)
Ln is the clear span extending from the face of columns, capitals,

brackets or walls but ≥ 0.65L1,
 Interior spans
• The distribution in interior spans is simple and is
approximately equal to the fixed-end beam
moments.
– Positive design moment – 0.35 Mo
– Negative design moment - 0.65Mo
• These moments are further divided between the
column and middle strips (Clause 31.4.3.2 of IS
456).
Exterior spans
The distribution of total static moment in exterior (end) spans depends
upon the end support conditions and the relative stiffness of the
columns and slab.
As per Clause 31.4.3.3 of IS 456, the distribution coefficients:
Exterior negative design moment coefficient =
Interior negative design moment coefficient =
Mid-span positive design moment coefficient =

 As per Clause 31.4.3.5, the negative moment sections should
be designed to resist the larger of the two interior negative
factored moments determined for spans framing into a
common support unless an analysis is made to distribute the
unbalanced moment in accordance with the stiffness of
adjoining elements (see Fig. 11.10).
 Edge beams or edges of slab should be proportioned to resist

the torsion due to their share of exterior negative factored
moments.

Fig. 11.9 Critical sections for negative design moment
Fig. 11.10 Design moment coefficients used in DDM for

flat slabs or flat plate

Distribution of Bending Moments across
Panel Width
Distribution to Column Strip
The rules for distributing the moments in the column strip are shown
in Fig. 11.11 (Clause 31.5.4 of IS 456)-See also Table 11.2 of Book.
For slabs with beams between supports, the slab portion of the
column strips should be proportioned to resist the portion of column
strip moments not resisted by the beams.
The torsional constant, C, for T- or L-beams is calculated by subdividing

the cross section into separate rectangular parts and summing the
values of C for each part.
Where x is the shorter side of rectangle

Transverse Distribution of Bending
Moments
Fig. 11.11 Transverse distribution of bending moments in a typical end span

Distribution of Bending Moments across
Panel Width
Distribution to Middle Strip
The moments in the middle strip are assigned as follows (see Fig. 11.11):
(a) The portion of negative and positive factored moments not
resisted by the column strips is proportionately assigned to the
corresponding half middle strips.
(b) Each middle strip is proportioned to resist the sum of the

moments assigned to its two half middle strips.
(c) A middle strip adjacent to and parallel with a wall-supported

edge is proportioned to resist twice the moment assigned to the
half middle strip corresponding to the first row of interior
supports.
Distribution of Moments as per ACI
Fig. 11.12 Flat slabs supported directly on columns

Distribution of Moments as per ACI
Fig. 11.13 Flat slabs with edge beams

Equivalent Frame Method
In this method, the structure is divided into frames in longitudinal and
transverse directions.
Thus, the actual three-dimensional structure is considered as a series

of equivalent plane frames, each consisting of a row of columns and a
portion of the floor system tributary to it.
In each direction, the equivalent frame consists of a row of columns

(or supports) bounded laterally by the centre lines of panels on each
side of the row of columns (or supports).
Frames adjacent to and parallel to an edge are bounded laterally by

the edge and centre line of the adjacent panel.
Fig. 11.14 Equivalent frames for various rows of columns

The equivalent frames can be analysed under both gravity and lateral
loads using any standard computer program based on the finite
element method (FEM).
The concept of substitute frames can be made use of instead of

analysing the whole equivalent frame, when the geometry and loading
are symmetrical.
The variation of the moment of inertia along the axis of slab on

account of the provision of drops should be taken into account in the
analysis.

Transfer of Moments to Columns
The maximum load that a flat slab can support is dependent upon the
strength of the slab-column joint.
In addition to the load that is transferred by shear from the slab to the
column (along an area around the column), moments and torsion also
have to be transferred to the exterior columns.
Such a transfer may also be there in interior columns, when there are
unbalanced gravity loads or other lateral loads such as wind and
earthquake.
Such moment transfers will be very critical at the edge and exterior
columns.
These moment transfers will cause shear stresses of their own in the
slabs.
Moreover, shear forces resulting from the moment transfer must be

considered in the design of transverse column reinforcement (ties and
spirals) as well.
The shear stresses due to moment and shear transfers in the interior
columns and edge column–slab joints are shown in Figs 11.15 and 11.16,
respectively.
If there is an unbalanced loading of two adjoining spans, the result will
be an additional moment at the connection of the walls and columns to
slabs. © Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved.
• Clause 31.3.3 of IS 456 suggests using a fraction of the

moment to be considered between slab and column:
Where a and b are the sides of the control

perimeter of a rectangular column
Better results may be got by
using the eqn. proposed by
Elgabry and Ghali (1996)
Fig. 11.15 Shear stresses due to transfer of shear and moment at interior columns
(a)Transfer of unbalanced moments to column (b) Total shear stresses (c) Shear stress
(b)due to Vu (d) Shear due to unbalanced moment
Transfer of Moments to Edge
Columns
Fig. 11.16 Shear stresses due to transfer of shear and moment at edge
columns (a) Transfer of moment at edge column (b) Total shear stresses
(c) Shear stresses due to Vu (d) Shear stresses due to Mu
Transfer Width At Slab-Columns
Connection
Fig. 11.17 Transfer width at slab-column connections (a) Interior column (b) Exterior column—moment
transferred parallel to the edge (c) Exterior column—moment transferred perpendicular to the edge

Shear in Flat Plates and Flat Slabs
For flat slabs and flat plates directly supported by columns, shear may
be the critical factor in design.
In almost all tests of such structures, failures have been due to shear
or perhaps shear and torsion. These conditions are particularly serious
around the exterior columns.
The shear strength of flat slabs in the vicinity of columns is thus

considered to be governed by the more severe of the following two
conditions:
1. Wide beam action or one-way shear
2. Two-way action (also called punching shear)

One-way or Beam Shear
The analysis for wide beam action considers the slab to act as a wide
beam spanning between columns.
The critical section extends in a plane across the entire width of the
slab and is assumed to be located at a distance d (effective slab depth)
from the face of the column or shear capital, as shown in Fig. 11.18(a).
The area from which the load is transferred to the critical section is
termed the tributary area.

Shear in Flat Plates
Fig. 11.18 Shear in flat plates (a) One-way or beam action (b) Two-way action (punching shear)

One-way or Beam Shear
In the case of flat slabs with drop panels, the one-way shear needs to
be checked at two sections—at a distance d1 from the face of the
columns, where d1 is the effective depth of the slab inside the panel,
and at a section d2 from the edge of the drop panel, where d2 is the
effective depth of the slab outside the panel (see Fig. 11.19a).
In the case of corner columns, the critical section has to be taken
along a straight line located at a distance d from the corner column, as
shown in Fig. 11.19(b).

Critical Section for One-way Shear
Fig. 11.19 Critical section for one-way shear (a) Flat slabs (b) Corner column

Two-way or Punching Shear
In general, the punching shear capacity will be considerably less than
the one-way shear capacity.
Punching failure usually occurs suddenly without any warning. Once a

punching failure occurs, the shear capacity of that joint is completely
lost.
The column load is transferred to the adjacent column–slab

connection, thereby overloading them and causing them to fail. This
kind of failure results in a progressive collapse.
Thus, a flat slab or flat plate may possess sufficient ductility if it fails
in flexure but little ductility when punching shear is the failure mode.
For the condition of two-way action, the critical section is assumed to
be located at a distance d/2 from the perimeter of the column or drop
panel, with potential diagonal tension cracks occurring along a
truncated cone or pyramid passing through the critical section (see Fig.
11.20).
When there is a drop panel, there will be two critical sections as

shown in Figs 11.20(b) and (d)—one at a distance of d1/2 from the face
of the column and within the drop panel and the other at a distance of
d2/2 from the edge of the drop panel, where d1 and d2 are the effective
slab depths at the respective locations.
Fig. 11.20 Critical sections for two-way punching shear (a) Flat slab without drop and column head
(b) Slab with drop but without column head (c) Slab without drop but with column head (d) Slab with
drop and column head
Variables Affecting Punching Shear
Strength
Several variables affect the punching shear strength of flat slabs as
follows:
1. Concrete strength
2. Ratio of the column size to slab effective depth
3. Ratio of shear strength to flexural strength
4. Shape of the column
5. Amount of tension and compression reinforcement
6. Lateral constraints

The critical section governing punching shear strength is located at d/2
from the face of the column (see Fig. 11.20). This is referred to as
pseudo-critical section for shear as adopted by the ACI code.
The ACI code also considers the shear perimeter as consisting of

straight lines, that is, without rounding off the corners.
Other codes, such as Euro code, consider the critical section at 1.5d or
even 2d from the face of the column and rounded shear perimeters
even for rectangular columns, as shown in Fig. 11.21.
For different shapes of columns, the perimeter is suggested to be

similar to the shape of the column immediately below the slab, as
shown in Fig. 11.22
Critical Perimeters
Fig. 11.21 Critical perimeters in different codes (a) ACI 318,

AS 3600, and IS 456 (b) CEB-FIP MC-90 (c) BS 8110

Fig. 11.22 Critical shear perimeters for different shapes of columns (a) Interior rectangular column
(b) Circular column (c) +-shaped column (d) L-shaped column (e) Exterior square column at an edge
(f) Exterior square column at a corner
Design Punching Shear Strength
The punching shear strength of concrete is dependent on the following
three parameters:
1. The ultimate compressive strength of concrete
2. The ratio of shorter side to longer side of the column or column
capital
3. The ratio of the dimension of column support to the effective
depth of the slab
As per Clause 31.6.3.1 of IS 456, the calculated shear stress at the
critical section[ ]should not exceed the following design
shear strength of concrete
Where βc is the ratio of shorter side to longer side of the column/column

capital
Combined Shear and Moment
Transfer at Columns
• Nominal shear stress of slab-column
connections transferring shear and moment is
calculated using the following formula:
See Table 11.7,11.8, and 11.9 for the definition of the terms
Combined Shear and Moment Transfer
at Columns
The punching shear failure surface at columns is accompanied by
bending cracks in the same region in circular and radial directions.
There should be adequate flexural reinforcement in addition to shear

reinforcement in this region.
In general, a minimum flexural reinforcement ratio of 0.5 per cent is

provided in both the directions within a region 1.5–2 times the depth of
the slab outside the opposite faces of the column or capital, the upper
limit of flexural reinforcement ratio being 1.5 per cent.
In addition, it is desirable to anchor the flexural reinforcement in the

column.
Fig. 11.23 Critical shear section of slab-column connections (a) Case A: Interior column
(b) Case B: Edge column (bending parallel to edge) (c) Case C: Edge column (bending
perpendicular to edge) (d) Case D: Corner column
Load Patterns for Maximum Shear Stress
The maximum shear stress on the critical

section around the columns should be
computed using a consistent load case
that produces a sum of shear stresses due
to gravity load and moment that is likely to
be the maximum.

Geometry and Shear Stress Distribution
Fig. 11.24 Geometry and shear stress distribution of edge

slab-column connection

Effect of Thick Slabs and Some Analytical
Models
Increasing the flexural reinforcement ratio may increase the punching
capacity, but it significantly decreases the deformation capacity and
ductility of the slab. Similarly, there is a significant reduction in the
punching shear stress resistance with increasing slab thickness.
Kinnunen and Nylander (1960) was the first to develop a rational

theory for the estimation of the punching shear strength, which is based
on the assumption that the punching strength is reached for a given
critical rotation.
A new failure criterion for punching shear based on the critical shear
crack theory has been presented by Prof. Muttoni and associates which
takes into account the size effect (see Ruiz and Muttoni, 2009).
Strategies to Avoid Punching Shear Failure
1. Increase the overall thickness of the slab.
2. Increase the thickness of the slab locally with a drop panel.
3. Increase beam spacing by increasing the size of the column or by

adding column capital or shear cap.
4. Provide some kind of shear reinforcement.

Different Types of Reinforcement for
Punching Shear
1. Shear stirrups
2. Headed shear studs
3. Structural steel shear heads
4. Shear bands
Introduction of shear reinforcement results in ductile failure caused by

the yielding of flexural reinforcement and improves the punching
shear resistance.
Shear Stirrups
One of the common practices is to provide shear stirrups connecting
the top and bottom reinforcement (see Fig. 11.25). This layout may be
circular or rectangular in plan.
The stirrups may be closed (Fig. 11.26a) or castellated (Fig. 11.26b)

and should pass around one row of tension steel running perpendicular
to them at each face as per Fig. 11.26.
Shear stirrups are designed in the same manner as the stirrups in

beams so far as the design principles, code requirements, and
anchorages are concerned.

Fig. 11.25 Stirrup-type shear reinforcement in flat slabs (a) Single-leg stirrup (b) Multiple-leg stirrup
(c) Closed stirrups (d) Arrangement of shear stirrup reinforcement—interior column (e) Arrangement
of shear stirrup reinforcement—edge column
Shear Stirrups
Fig. 11.26 Shear stirrups as suggested (a) Closed stirrups (b) Castellated stirrups
Disadvantages of Shear Stirrups
1. Congestion of reinforcement, unless they are planned carefully
considering the sequence of layout
2. Difficulty in obtaining proper anchorages to short lengths of bars and

required close dimensional tolerances
3. Likely damage to small-sized bars during handling and concreting
4. Risk of omitting small-sized bars, as they may be considered

inconsequential at site
5. Considerable expense in fabricating, handling, and placing small-

sized stirrups
Headed Shear Studs
Headed shear studs act in the same mechanical manner as hooked
stirrup legs, but the head of shear studs provide better anchorage than
a bar hook.
The use of shear studs increases the load-carrying capacity, punching

shear strength, and ductility of flat slabs. Such studs are easy to install,
reduce congestion, and do not interfere with flexural reinforcement.
Headed stud type reinforcement consists of rows of vertical studs,

each with a circular head welded or forged on the top and a steel strip
welded to the bottom (see Figs 11.27 and 11.28).

Fig. 11.27 Headed shear studs (a) Headed shear stud reinforcement (b) Details of double-headed studs
Headed Shear Studs
Fig. 11.28 Examples of the use of headed shear stud reinforcement (a) Single-headed
stud rail fixed at the bottom of the slab

Headed Shear Studs
Fig. 11.28(b) Double-headed Stud rail dropped in place

after slab reinforcement is fixed (Max Frank Ltd., UK)
Headed Shear Studs
The anchorage is mechanically achieved by the forged heads or the
steel strip.
The steel strip, also called the rail, acts as an anchor and spacer,
holding the studs in a vertical position at the appropriate spacing in the
formwork until the concrete is cast.
Two makes of stud rail are available:

(a) The first type has the spacing bar at the bottom and is fixed in
position before placing the main reinforcement (See Fig. 11.28a).
(b) The second type is fixed from the top after all the main
reinforcement has been positioned as shown in Fig. 11.28b.
Advantages of Headed Shear Studs
1. Relatively easy installation and cost effectiveness
2. Adequate anchorage of these studs even in thin slabs
3. Use of entire effective slab thickness
4. Introduction of provisions in the ACI code in the 2008 version

Steel Section Shear Head Reinforcement
Shear head reinforcement, as shown in Fig. 11.29, includes the use of
I-sections, channel sections, or steel plates.
Structural steel sections when used as shear head reinforcement

reduce congestion and result in ease of fabrication and installation.
The I-sections are welded fully to form identical arms of equal length
in orthogonal directions.
The arms should have adequate length beyond which (outer critical
section) the shear stresses in concrete are within the permissible limits.

Steel Section Shear Head Reinforcement
Disadvantages
1.Steel sections tend to be heavy and are expensive compared to
conventional shear stirrup reinforcement and normally require full
penetration welding at the intersections right above the column.
2.They are difficult to integrate with conventional reinforcement and

may obstruct passage of the column bars through the connection.
3.Due to their high stiffness, they attract extra moment to the

connection, which can lead to problems at the ends of the steel
sections.

Fig. 11.29 Shear head reinforcement (a) Small interior shear head (n = 4)
(b) Large interior shear head (n = 4) (c) Small edge shear head (n = 3)
(d) Section through shear head
Shear Band Reinforcement
Shear band reinforcement system is made of high-strength steel strips
of high ductility.
The strip is punched with holes, because this has been demonstrated
experimentally to increase its anchoring characteristics over short
lengths.
The strip can be bent to a variety of shapes (see Fig. 11.30).
Due to its small thickness, the reinforcement can be placed from the
top, after all flexural reinforcement is in place, with minimal loss of
cover.

Shear Band Reinforcement
Fig. 11.30 Shear band reinforcement (a) Placement in slab (b) Flat steel strip
punched with holes (c) Schematic way of representing shear band reinforcement

Benefits of Shear Band System
1. It anchors above the outermost layer of reinforcement.
2. It acts over the entire concrete core, maximizing its effectiveness in

resisting shear.
3. It does not decrease the effective depth of flexural reinforcement.
4. It is very simple to place and efficient.
5. It does not increase the flexural capacity of the slab.

Shear Band System
The shear band system is adaptable and can accommodate greater
tolerances in placement and enables quick addition of extra
reinforcement where required at a later stage.
In addition, this system has the following features:

1. It can enable the construction of thinner slabs.
2. It can be designed by using the existing design procedures for
shear stirrups.
3. It can be used in addition to other systems.
This system is effective in both non-participating and lateral force

resistant systems.

Lattice Shear Reinforcement
Lattice shear reinforcement improves the punching shear strength of
the slab-column connections.
A method for estimating the shear strength of the slab-column

connections with lattice shear reinforcement has also been developed.
In addition, a UFO punching preventer, made of steel plate material,

has been developed in Europe (see Fig. 11.32).
The UFO increases the punching capacity beyond the level that can be
reached by the punching shear reinforcement. The bottom flange and
the lower part of the product function like a support for the slab in the
outer area.
© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. shear
Lattice Shear Reinforcement
Fig. 11.31 Lattice shear reinforcement

UFO Punching Preventer
Fig. 11.32 Flat slab with UFO punching preventer and

Bamtec carpet reinforcement

Design Procedure for Flat Slabs and Plates
1. Determine whether the slab geometry and loading allow the use of
the DDM. Assuming a depth of slab, calculate the factored dead and
live loads.
2. Select a slab thickness to satisfy the deflection and shear

requirements. If the thickness shown for deflection is not adequate
to carry the shear, use one or more of the following:
(a) Increase column dimension.
(b) Increase concrete strength.
(c) Use drop panels or column capitals to improve shear strength.
(d) Increase slab thickness.
(e) Use shear reinforcement.

3. Divide the flat slab into column and middle strips.
4. The DDM is essentially a three-step procedure:

(a) Compute the total statical factored moment, Mo.
(b) Divide Mo as negative and positive moments within each span.
(c) Distribute the negative and positive moment from step 4(b) to
the column and middle strips within each span.

5. Determine whether the trial slab thickness chosen is adequate for

the moment–shear transfer in the case of flat plates at the interior
or exterior column junctions. If not, design the punching shear
reinforcement.
6. Design the flexural reinforcement to resist the factored moments

computed in step 4.
7. Select the size and spacing of the reinforcement to fulfil the

requirements for crack control, bar development lengths, and
shrinkage and temperature stresses.

Detailing of Reinforcements
1. The spacing of reinforcement in the flat slab should not exceed twice
the slab thickness, except where a slab is of cellular or ribbed
construction.
2. When drop panels are used, the thickness of the drop panel for the
determination of the area of reinforcement should be the lesser of
the thickness of the drop and that of the slab, plus one-fourth the
distance from the edge of the drop panel to the face of the column
or column capital.
3. Reinforcement in flat slabs should have minimum lengths as

specified in Fig. 16 of IS 456(see Fig. 11.33 of book). Larger lengths
should be provided when the analysis is done by the EFM.

4. Where adjacent panels are unequal in span, the extension of the
negative reinforcement beyond each face of the common column
should be based on the longer span.
5. All slab reinforcements perpendicular to a discontinuous edge

should have an anchorage (straight, bent, or otherwise anchored)
past the internal face of the spandrel beam, wall, or column equal to
the following:
(a) For positive reinforcement, it should not be less than 150 mm.
(b) For negative reinforcement, it should be such that the design
stress is developed at the internal face in accordance with the
development requirements of the code.

6. Where the slab is not supported by a spandrel beam or wall or
where the slab cantilevers beyond the support, the anchorage is
permitted within the slab.
7. In frames where flat slabs act as primary members resisting lateral

loads, the lengths of reinforcement should be determined by
analysis.

Detailing at Edge Columns
1. The top steel required to transfer the moment fMu should be placed
in a width equal to the smaller of 2(1.5Ds) + c2 and 2ct + c2 centred
on the column (see Fig. 11.33), where c1 and c2 are the dimensions of
the column, ct is the distance from the inner face of the column to
the edge of the slab, and Ds is the depth of the flat slab. This width is
referred to as the effective transfer width.
2. Torsional reinforcement should be provided along the edge of the

slab, within the dimensions defined in point 1 and extending away
from the side face of the column to at least two times the slab
thickness. The reinforcement placed outside this width is considered
ineffective for moment transfer.
Effective Transfer Width
Fig. 11.33 Effective transfer width at exterior slab-column connections

(a) Effective width (b) Detailing of reinforcement

Detailing at Edge Columns
Clause 31.3.2 of the code suggests the following when a beam of depth
greater than 1.5 times the thickness of the slab or wall is provided:
1. The loads directly coming on the beam or wall plus one-fourth of

the total uniformly distributed load on slab should be considered
for the design of the beam or wall.
2. The bending moments on the half-column strip adjacent to the

beam or wall should be taken as one-fourth of the bending
moments for the first interior column strip.

Structural Integrity Reinforcement
Flat plate structures have a tendency to collapse in a progressive
manner.
The basic mechanism of this failure consists of one overloaded slab-

column connection failing in punching shear, subsequently overloading
the slab below, resulting in the progressive collapse of several floors in a
building.
As shown in Fig. 11.34, the top reinforcement is inadequate to provide

the post-punching resistance because it can be torn from the top
surface of the slab at relatively low loads.

Fig. 11.34 Mechanism by which bottom reinforcement

Prevents progressive collapse

To avoid this failure, researchers have suggested the provision of a
secondary mechanism to suspend a slab after initial shear failure.
Hence, bottom slab reinforcement passing through the column cage

can be provided, which will act as a membrane to suspend the slab after
the initial punching shear failure.
At least two of the column strip bottom bars in each direction should
pass within the region bounded by the longitudinal reinforcement of the
column and shall be anchored at the exterior supports.

Case Study: Failure of Skyline Plaza
Several failures of Flat
plates have been
reported. In Mar. 1973,
30 storey Skyline Plaza
(Virginia, USA)
collapsed, while under
construction, due to
punching shear on the
23rd floor and resulted
in a progressive
collapse

Openings in Flat Slabs
Clause 31.8 of IS 456 permits openings of any size in a flat slab system,
provided it can be shown by suitable analysis that the requirements of
strength and serviceability, including the limits on deflections, are met.
However, in the following situations no special analysis is required:

1. In the area within the middle half of the span in each direction,
opening of any size is permitted, provided the total amount of
reinforcement required for the panel without openings, in both
directions, is maintained.

Openings in Flat Slabs
2. In the area common to the intersecting column strips, an opening
size of one-eighth the width of column strip in either span is
permitted. The equivalent of reinforcement interrupted should be
added on all sides of the openings.
3. In the area common to one column strip and one middle strip, the
maximum permitted opening size is limited in such a way that a
maximum of one-quarter of the slab reinforcement in either strip
may be interrupted. The equivalent of reinforcement interrupted
should be added on all sides of the openings.
These provisions are explained in Fig. 11.35 for slabs with L2 > L1.
Fig. 11.35 Permitted openings in flat slabs
Effect of Openings on Shear Strength of
Slabs
The effect of an opening on the concrete shear strength has to be
considered in flat slabs when any opening is located anywhere within
the column strip or within 10 times the slab thickness from the
concentrated load or reaction area.
The effect of the opening on the shear strength maybe considered by

reducing the perimeter of the critical section by a length equal to the
projection of the opening on the critical length.
This reduction is determined by the enclosed radial projections of the

openings to the centroid of the reaction area as shown in Figs 11.36 and
11.37.
Effect of Openings on Shear Strength of
Slabs
Fig. 11.36 Effect of opening on shear strength of slabs (a) Opening on the critical
perimeter (b) Opening away from the critical perimeter (c) Large opening near
critical perimeter (d) Column near the edge of building

Effect of Opening in Slab
Fig. 11.37 Effect of opening in slab (a) With drop panel (b) With shear
reinforcement

Earthquake Effects
Earthquakes have demonstrated that slab-column connections of flat
slabs are vulnerable to brittle punching shear failures, which are
expensive to repair.
Moment frames or shear walls are to be provided to resist lateral

loads in regions of high seismic risk, it allows flat slabs without such
LFRSs in regions of low or moderate seismic risk.
Fig 11.38 illustrates several rules for detailing of flat slabs in

earthquake zones.

Earthquake Effects
Fig. 11.38 Detailing of reinforcement in flat slabs in earthquake zones

Earthquake Effects
Where precast flooring elements are used, an adequately reinforced
in situ topping of at least 65 mm in thickness should be placed in order
to provide suitable diaphragm action.
This topping should be adequately bonded to the precast elements, if

composite action is required, by the use of mechanical connectors or
chemical bonding in conjunction with adequate interface roughening.
Without this, separation can occur and the topping may buckle when
subjected to diagonal compression resulting from diaphragm shear and
be unable to transmit the floor inertial forces to the shear walls or
columns.
Diaphragm Action
There should be an adequate load path for the forces to be
transferred between a diaphragm and any lateral force resisting
elements, such as walls or frames.
In addition, the connections between them should be detailed in such

a way that they adequately transfer the anticipated loads.
The strut-and- tie method may be used for the design of these details.
More chord reinforcement may be required in buildings with flat

plates or flat slabs and shear walls.

Equivalent Column Method
Two approaches are used in the modelling of the slab-column

behaviour for two-dimensional frame analysis—torsional member and
effective slab width methods.
The most common torsional member method is the equivalent

column method, which defines a transverse torsional spring to model
the torsional stiffness of the slab adjacent to the slab-column
connection.
This stiffness is combined with the column stiffness to provide the

properties of an equivalent column.

Effective Slab Width Method
The equivalent width of the slab–beam element is adjusted to
simulate the actual behaviour of the three-dimensional system, whereas
the depth is taken as the actual depth of the slab.
The effective width accounts for the behaviour of the slab that is not
fully effective across its transverse width.
More recent proposals for effective slab widths are calibrated to

match the experimental behaviour of laterally loaded slab-column
systems.
The effective width model shown in Fig. 11.39 is intended to give an

estimate of the strength and stiffness contributions of flat slab frames at
relatively low drift levels.
Effective Slab Width Model
Fig. 11.39 Effective slab width model (a) Effective width for strength
(b) Effective width for initial stiffness

Deformation Capacity of Slab-column
Connections
Slab-column connections should have sufficient rotational capacity to
avoid punching failure so that the gravity load carrying capacity is
maintained under seismic excitations.
Hence, deformation capacity is of particular concern for slab-column

connections subjected to lateral loads.
Connection deformation capacity is reduced by the increased gravity

load. The connection deformation capacity is often expressed as the
inter-storey drift ratio.

Slab-column Connection
Fig. 11.40 ACI code criterion for adequacy of slab-column

connection in seismic zones
Resisting Punching Shear in
Earthquake Zones
Fig. 11.41 Design steps for resisting punching shear in earthquake zones

Waffle Slabs
A waffle slab, also called a two-way joist, ribbed slab system, or a
coffered slab, essentially consists of a thin top slab acting compositely
with a closely spaced orthogonal grid of beam ribs, as shown in Fig.
11.42.
The joists are commonly formed by using standard glass fibre

reinforced plastic (GFRP) square dome forms.
Thin precast concrete domes with a thickness of 25–40 mm may also

be used as left-in-place shuttering, in which case they act monolithically
with the waffle slab system.
Waffle Slabs
In flat waffle slabs, these domes are omitted around the columns to
form solid heads to resist the high bending and shear stresses in these
critical areas.
In contrast to a joist, which carries loads in a one-way action, a waffle

system carries the loads simultaneously in two directions.
Waffle slabs result in considerable reduction in dead loads compared

to conventional flat slabs, and their soffit provides architecturally
desirable appearance.

Fig. 11.42 Waffle slabs (a) Waffle slab (flat plate) (b) Building with waffle slab (c) Waffle slab
supported on beams (d) Waffle slab ceiling in Washington, DC, Metro station
Waffle Slabs
Waffle slabs are designed as flat slabs by treating the solid heads as
drop panels.
The bending moments per metre width obtained for solid slabs (in
case of waffle slab supported by beams—see Fig. 11.43c) should be
multiplied by the spacing of the ribs to obtain the bending moments per
rib.
In the case of waffle slabs without beams, as shown in Fig. 11.43(a),
bending moments in column and middle strips can be determined using
the DDM.

Two-way Ribbed Slab with Filler Blocks
Fig. 11.43 Two-way ribbed slab with filler blocks

Waffle Slabs
These bending moments may be apportioned to the number of ribs
present in the column and middle strips.
At least 50 per cent of the total tension reinforcement at the bottom
should be extended to the support and anchored properly.
Minimum reinforcement is provided in the topping slab, usually in the

form of welded wire mesh.
The one-way shear force per metre width obtained should be

multiplied by the spacing of the ribs to obtain the shear force per rib.

Grid Slabs
When the spacing of ribs is greater than 1.5 m, the slab is referred to
as a grid slab.
The behaviour of the grid slabs is different from that of a solid or

waffle slab, as torsional rigidity is negligible in grids.
They are generally analysed by using grid analysis programs, with the
slab load acting on them as triangular or trapezoidal loads.
The beams are then designed as T- or rectangular beams for the

bending and torsional moments as well as shear forces obtained from
the computer results. The slabs over the grid beams are designed as
two-way slabs.
Hollow-core Slabs
Hollow-core slabs are produced using the following two methods:
1. In the dry-cast (or extrusion) system, a very low slump concrete
is forced through the casting machine and the concrete is
compacted around the cores.
2. The second system uses a higher slump concrete and the sides
are created by stationary forms (or by slip forming) with forms
attached to the machine.
Cores are typically created by pneumatic tubes attached to the form

or by slip forming with long tubes attached to the casting machine.

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Design of Reinforced

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved.

Design of Flat Plates and

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Flat plates also provide more flexibility in the layout of columns,

The main limitation of flat plates is the problem posed by resisting

The thickness of flat slabs, similar to other two-way slabs, is generally

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved.

2. Extend in each direction from the centre line of support a

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Occasionally, the tops of columns will be flared outward as shown in

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Their horizontal projection from the face of the column must be

The failure of shear capital is accompanied by the sudden separation

A simplified scheme of column and middle strips of a typical flat slab

The column strips behave as continuous beams supported on

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved.

Although the flexural capacity is significantly enhanced by the

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved.

These methods are primarily based on experience, supplemented by

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved.

2. The panels should be rectangular, and the ratio of the longer to

3. The successive span lengths (centre to centre of supports) in

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5. Loads must be due to gravity loads alone, which are uniformly

7. Redistribution of bending moments is permitted up to 10 per cent.

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Fig. 11.8 Assumptions in direct design method

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The total static moment is distributed longitudinally and transversely

Ln is the clear span extending from the face of columns, capitals,

Interior negative design moment coefficient =

Mid-span positive design moment coefficient =

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 Edge beams or edges of slab should be proportioned to resist

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Fig. 11.10 Design moment coefficients used in DDM for

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The torsional constant, C, for T- or L-beams is calculated by subdividing

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Fig. 11.11 Transverse distribution of bending moments in a typical end span

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(b) Each middle strip is proportioned to resist the sum of the

(c) A middle strip adjacent to and parallel with a wall-supported

Fig. 11.12 Flat slabs supported directly on columns

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Fig. 11.13 Flat slabs with edge beams

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Thus, the actual three-dimensional structure is considered as a series

In each direction, the equivalent frame consists of a row of columns

Frames adjacent to and parallel to an edge are bounded laterally by

Fig. 11.14 Equivalent frames for various rows of columns

The concept of substitute frames can be made use of instead of

The variation of the moment of inertia along the axis of slab on

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Moreover, shear forces resulting from the moment transfer must be