Structural Geology

Structural geology is the study of three – dimensional distribution of

rock units with respect to their deformation histories.
Rock deformation and reasons
• Bending, stretching and shortening of rocks.
• Stress
• Reasons;
1. Stress
2. Temperature changes
3. Wetting and dying
1. Stress
Compressive stress Tensional stress Shearing stress
Act towards same point Act away from each other from a point Act tangentially

Converging plate boundary Tend to stretch a body and pull it apart Tend to push different parts
of body in opposite direction
Folding and faulting Tensional faults
Tend to squeeze and shorten a body Divergent plate boundaries Transform plate boundaries
Stage of rock deformation
• Elastic deformation : body is deformed on applying stress and on
releasing the stress, the body again returns to its original shape and
size.
• Brittle deformation: gradually increasing continuous force when
applied results a sudden fracture on the rock after only little change in
the rock. Example faults, brittle occur rock like granite
• Ductile deformation: gradually increasing continuous force when
applied results a smooth and continuous plastic deformation. Rock
will change its shape without fracturing. Occurs in rock salt, formation
of fold.
Attitude of geological structures
Attitude of planar features
• Strike
• Dip amount
• Dip direction
Attitude of linear features
i. Plunge
ii. Trend
Linear structures like , fold axis, hinge line,
intersection of two planes, lineation
Geological structures
a. On the basis of mode of deformation
i. Brittle deformation
ii. Ductile deformation
b. On the basis of mode of formation
iii. Primary sedimentary structures : bedding or stratification, graded
bedding, cross bedding, ripple marks, mud cracks,
iv. Secondary structures: lineation, fold, faults and joints
Secondary structures
• Continuous deformation structures
1. Lineation
2. Foliation
3. Crenulation cleavage
4. Boudinage
5. Folds
Lineation
Foliation
• Preferred orientation of minerals within a rock is called foliation.
Caused by the shearing forces on metamorphism.
• Example, slaty cleavage, gneissic banding, schistocity.
Crenulation cleavage
• It is the microstructure formed in metamorphic rocks by two or more
stress directions resulting in superimposed foliations.
Boudinage
• When a rigid tubular body of competent bed rock is stretched,
deformed, it breaks forming boudins.
• Ductile deformations, sausage shape or barrel shaped, rectangular
Fold
• Wavy undulations in the rock beds are called folds. Folds may be
defined as zig-zag structures shown by rock beds.
• Ductile deformation
Parts of fold
1. Limbs: flanks of a fold
2. Hinge: point where curvature is maximum. Limb starts from the hinge point. When
rocks occur in a sequence, the line connecting their all hinge points is called hinge
line.
3. Axial surface and axial plane: axial surface is the surface drawn by joining all the
hinge lines drawn throughout the depth of a folded sequence. It passes through all
the points of maximum curvature. An axial surface if is of planar nature, called axial
plane.
4. Axis of fold: any line parallel to hinge line drawn to represent the general trend is
called the axis of a fold. Formed by the intersection of the axial plane with any bed.
5. Plunge: it is the angle of inclination of the fold axis with the horizontal as measured
in a vertical plane.
6. Crest and trough: the line running through the highest points is called crest. The line
joining lowest points is called trough.
Classification of folds( basis of concavity or
convexity)
1. Anticline (anti form)
2. Syncline (synform)
Anticlines Synclines
Strata are convex upwards Reverse of anticlines
Older rocks occupy the core Strata are convex downwards
Younger rocks occupy the outer limbs Younger rocks occupy the core
Limbs dip away from each other at the Older rocks are at outer limbs
crest
Limbs dip towards a common center
On the basis of position of axial plane
1. Symmetrical fold
2. Asymmetrical fold
3. Overturned fold
4. Isoclinal folds
5. Recumbent fold
6. Conjugate fold
On the basis of plunging of the axis
1. Non – plunging fold
2. Plunging fold
Basis of nature of axial surface
1. Planar fold ( axial surface is of planar nature)
2. Non – planar fold (irregular)
Basis of mode of occurrence
1. Anticlinorium folds ( large anticline folds)
2. Synclinorium folds ( large syncline folds)
Domes and Basins
Causes of folding
• Tectonic forces
• Intrusion of magma
• Mass movement and landslide
Discontinuous deformation structures
1. Crack features
2. Faults
3. Joints
4. Thrust
5. Unconformity
Crack features
• Any separation in a rock such as a joint or a fault that divides the rock
into two or more pieces are called cracks.
• Developed due to brittle deformation. Caused by stress exceeding the
rock strength.
• Provide permeability, make aquifers
Faults
• A planar feature or discontinuity in rock where there is relative
displacement along the feature due to rock mass movement is called
a fault.
• Due to brittle deformation caused by stresses, faults are formed in
rocks. Basically shear failure.
Parts of fault
• Fault plane: fracture surface of a fault.
• Fault line: intersection of the fault plane with the ground surface.
• Hanging wall: the block above the fault plane.
• Fault scarp: it is the exposed portion seen after the relative
displacement.
• Attitude of fault: planar features likes bedding, foliation or joints.
• Displacement or escarpment: net distance between the surfaces of
blocks.
Types of slips
• Dip slip: movement parallel to the dip
• Strike slip: movement parallel to the strike of the fault plane
• Net slip: movement oblique to both the dip and strike
• Throw: total vertical displacement
• Heave: total horizontal displacement
Types of faults
1. Normal fault
2. Reverse fault
3. Strike slip fault
4. Horst and Graben fault
1. Normal fault: hanging wall moves downward relative to the footwall in
such fault. Formed due to tension. Occur in areas undergoing extension.
2. Reserve fault: Hanging wall moves upward relative to the footwall in
reserve fault. Formed due to compressional, caused by some internal or
external thrust that is why are also called thrust fault. Thrust is capable
of overturning the lithological sequence i.e. placing older rocks above
younger. If displacement is larger in thrust called overthrust fault.
3. Strike slip fault: the fault in which motion of the blocks are parallel to
the strike of the fault plane is called strike slip fault. Rock blocks move in
opposite horizontal direction. If the rock blocks across the fault moves
to the right, then it is called dextral strike slip fault and if it moves left,
then it is called sinistral strike slip fault.
Normal, reserve and strike slip fault refers to the genetic classification of
faults.
Horst and Graben fault
• When normal faults with mutually diverging or converging fault
planes occur, then the blocks displaced upwards are called horsts and
those displaced downwards are grabens.
Joints
Classification of joints
a. Mode of formation basis ( genetic classification)
i. tension joints
ii. Compression joints
iii. Shear joints
b. Geometry basis
i. strike joints
ii. Dip joints
iii. Oblique joints
iv. Bedding joints
c. Spatial relationship basis
i. Regular joints
ii. Irregular joints
Thrusts
• Type of fault or break in the earth´s crust across which there has been
relative displacement, in which rocks of lower stratigraphic position
are pushed up and over higher strata are called thrusts.
• Formed as a result of compressional forces.
• Reverse fault having low dip angles.
• Can often be recognised in the field because the older rocks are
placed above younger in thrusts.
• If angle of fault plane ‹20⁰, then called over thrust.
Unconformity
• A surface along which two different rock units are present is called unconformity.
• Upper rocks are usually much younger than the lower rock and there is a break
in the geological record.
• Field identification: there is a sharp contrast in color and rock type between the
rocks above and below a certain layer.
• Types of unconformity:
1. Angular unconformity
2. Disconformity
3. Non – conformity
4. Paraconformity
Field identification of folds
• Repetition of strata
Identification of faults in field
1. Direct evidences
i. Abrupt termination of geological structure
ii. Strata out of stratigraphic sequence
iii. Fault breccia and gouge
iv. Slickensides
v. Drag
vi. Feather joints
vii. Silicification and mineralization
2. Indirect evidences
3. Physiographic evidence
viii. Aligned springs
ix. Offset streams
x. Lines of ponds, springs or water seeking plants
Engineering geological significance of folds,
FAULT AND JOINTS