ANIMAL

REPRODUCTION
Ninad parkhi
 I t ’s a t r a i t , a s c o m p l e x i t y o f o r g a n i s m i n c r e a s e s w e t r e a t i t i s a s a p r o c e s s .

It draws boundary between living and non living –

h t t p s : / / w w w. y o u t u b e . c o m / w a t c h ? v = o D v z b B R i N l A

Due to replication trait life grew exponentially –

h t t p s : / / w w w. y o u t u b e . c o m / w a t c h ? v = m M c _ z 1 r 9 6 g s
Replication proper ties.

Replication will always produce complexity as long as that trait is present -

h t t p s : / / w w w. y o u t u b e . c o m / w a t c h ? v = U h S S t R- F p Q c

Apparently replication seems taxing energetically on individual but at

m o l e c u l a r l e v e l i t ’s b e n e fi c i a l .
 Lone parent.

Simple

Fa s t e r

Less energy

No sex cells involved

P r o d u c e r e l a t i v e l y l e s s d i v e r s i t y, a s l i f e c y c l e s a r e s h o r t , w e c a n s e e t h e
d i ff e r e n c e s a f t e r a f e w g e n e r a t i o n .

Diversity is produced due to copying errors in genetic material.

Binary fi ssion – Potential advantages –

Asexual reproduction is the complete and
N o e n e r g y t o fi n d m a t e , p r o d u c e s p e r m s , e g g s o r i n m a t i n g .
faithful ex-pression of all the genes of the
mother cell in the daughter cells. Advantageous Only when external environment isn't changing.

Expand quick, exploit resources

Potential disadvantages – uniform po pulations

h t t p s : / / w w w. b i o l o g y o n l i n e . c o m / d i c t i o n a r y / b i n a r y - fi s s i o n
 Its taxing so needs energy resources

R aw m a t e r i a l i n a b u n d a n c e

Re l a t i ve s t a b i l i t y

Pre-requisite for binar y Safety from predation

fi ssion and
exampl es i n hi gher Examples –

organisms 1) Hydra – Budding

2) Sea star – fragmentation

3) Sea sponge – fragmentation and regeneration

4) Sea anemones – sexual and asexual-Budding

 Cells die.

Need to be replaced.

Should be identical.

How they replaced?

Before mitosis W h a t r e g u l a t e s d i v i s i o n – p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i ve
r e g u l a t i on .

W h a t m a ke s c e l l d i v i d e ?

Do all cells undergo mitosis at some point?

 Death of nearby cells

Crowding
External cues or
Growth factors
external events
Size of the cell
which regulates the
Anchorage
mitosis
density
 After the external cues

Cells which are to start division enters cell cycle.

DNA is always in a loose state called chromatin
When cells start to divide it forms coiled up chromatin.
Chromosome can be seen after duplication of genetic material.

why genetic material is not always packed? – Pradyot

 G r ow i n g p h a s e

Interphase Synthesis phase

Gap phase
 Accumulation of building blocks.

Energy reserves.

Re s u m p t i o n o f n o r m a l c e l l m e t a b o l i s m

Synthesis of 3 types of RNA

Protein synthesized are – regulatory

DNA synthesizing proteins required in s phase

Growing phase
Tu b u l i n a n d o t h e r m i t o t i c a p p a r a t u s u s e d d u r i n g m i t o s i s .

G1 checkpoint – Adequate cell size, Adequate reserves, DNA

i n t e g r i t y.

If not – 1)Remed y prob lem 2)E nter G0 p hase 3)Apoptosis

G1 absent – 1)rapidly dividing cells (blastomere of frogs,

mammals) 2)Neurons and heart muscles.
 S e m i c on d e n s e d c h r o m a t i n

D u p l i c a t i on / Re p l i c a t i on

S y n t h e s i s of h i s t o n e

At the end of s phase, 2 DNA molecule and 2 sets of

S-Phase
genes
 Organelles duplicated

C y t o s ke l e t o n d i s m a n t l e d

G 2 c h e c k p o i n t – C e l l s i z e , p r o t e i n r e s e r ve s ,
c h r o m o s om e r e p l i c a t i o n a n d i t s i n t e g r i t y.
G2 Phase

I f n ot - 1 ) Re p a i r d a m a g e 2 ) A p o p t o s i s 3 ) c om p l e t i on o f
replication 4) G0 phase is not an option.
 GF – Growth factor

G F R – G r o w t h f a c t o r r e c e p t or s

S i g n a l Tra n s d u c e r s - R a s

Cell cycle regulation Nuclear regulatory proteins, TF – transcription factors.

N o w p r ot e i n s c r e a t e d f r o m a b o ve s t e p s r e g u l a t e c e l l
c yc l e
 Pos i t i ve r e g u l a t i o n –

C yc l i n C D K – w i t h o u t s p e c i fi c c o n c e n t r a t i o n , c e l l c yc l e d o n o t

proceed.

Regulator y Protein
Molecules – Positive
regulation
 C D K i n h i b i t o r s – Re t i n o b l a s t o m a , P 5 3 , P 2 1

Re t i n o b l a s t o m a p r o t e i n – M on i t or s c e l l g r o w t h , P r o d u c e E 2 f T F
Regulator y protein
w h i c h b l o c k G 1 -S Tr a n s i t i o n b y h a m p e r i n g p r o t e i n s y n t h e s i s .
molecule –
negative
P53 – Sense Damaged DNA, repair enzymes, apoptosis, more
regulation c o n c e n t r a t i o n l e a d s t o m or e P 2 1 w h i c h a t t a c h e s t o C D K a n d b l oc k
it.

P r o b l e m s i n t h o s e p r ot e i n s c a u s e c a n c e r.
 Chromatin – loose Form of DNA

Chromosome – Thick, compact DNA molecule.

Defi nitions Chromatid – 2 Molecules of double stranded

chromosome joined together by centromere.
 E u k a r yo t i c

Multicellular

Re p a i r, r e g e n e ra t i o n , r e p l a c e m e n t .

Mitosis h t t p s : / / w w w. n a t u r e . c o m / s c i t a b l e / t o p i c p a g e / m i t o s i s - 1 4 0 4 6 2 5 8 /

h t t p s : / / w w w. y o u t u b e . c o m / w a t c h ? v = f- l d P g E f A H I

h t t p s : / / w w w. y o u t u b e . c o m / w a t c h ? v = T K G c f b y F X s w
Chromosomes in mitosis are like the
corpses at funeral : They provide the
reason for the proceedings but play
no active par t in them

- Ninad Parkhi

(alber t et al 1989, kadun chorlay)

Prophase
Appearance of chromosomes.

C h r o m a t i n b e c o m e s h o r t e r a n d t h i c k e r.

Kinetochores on centromeres

Earlier chromosomes are evenly distributed,

late prophase they approach nuclear membrane.

In cytoplasm appearance of mitotic spindle.

(Microtubules)

Nucleus /Nuclear membrane disintegrate – how

is unknown 1)mitochondrial enzymatic action
2)Nuclear RNA 3) physical stress by
microtubules.
Metaphase

C h r o m o s o m e s s h o r t e s t a n d t h i c ke s t .

Longest phase

At M e t a p h a s e p l a t e .

V i o l e n t s p i n n i n g o f c h r om o s o m e , r a p i d
m o ve m e n t s t o g e t a rra n g e d o n
metaphasic plate.

S i s t e r c h r o m a t i d f o r m a ti o n
 Spi ndle assembly checkpoint (SAC) – 1) Prevents pr ema ture
separa ti on 2) fi deli ty of chromosome segregation 3) moni tor s
chromosome al ignment and spi ndl e i ntegr ity

The MAD - Mitotic Ar rest Defi cient pr otei ns MAD1, MAD2, BUBR1
( MAD3), a nd BUB1.

To complete mitosis, the cell stri ctly requi res the a ctivi ty of
cycli n B–CDK1 (degra da tion)
Metaphase
checkpoint
MCC – Mi toti c checkpoint compl ex stops degradation of cycli n B -
Cdk complex until a ll centromeres wi th kinetochores ar e
a tta ched to spi ndl e fi br es.

The resul ta nt cel l cycle del ay may be extensi ve, ca usi ng the cell
to degenera te wi thout compl eti ng the divi si on.
However, in ma ny cell types the checkpoint i s eventual ly
overri dden, a nd di vision occurs regar dless of the chromosome
err or.
 Daughter chromosomes are pulled by microtubules towards pole,
it’s caused by accumulation of vesicles of ca+ at spindle pole.

Kinetochore microtubules get shortened and daughter

chromosomes move.

Anaphase

Astral and polar spindles help move spindle pole toward periphery,
astral attaches to cell membrane, polar spindles repel each other.
Telophase

T he End of polar migration – Star t of Telophase

Its prophase reversed – 1) Nuclear membrane reappears 2) Forms 2 nuclei around

chromosomes 3) Mitotic apparatus except centrioles disappears 4) chromosomes
relax 5) RNA synthesis star ts 6) Nucleolus reappears.
Cytokinesis

T h e c o n s t ri ct i o n o f c y t o p l a s m i n t o 2 d i ff e r e n t c e l l s .

C y to p l a s m d i v i d e s b y t h e p r o c e s s c a l l e d c l e ava g e

C l e ava g e p ro c e s s s t a r t s i n a n a p h a s e a n d e n d a t c y t o k i n e s i s

I t s a c c o m p l i s h e d w i t h t h e h e l p o f r i n g m a d e u p o f a c t i n fi l a m e n t – c o n t r a c t i l e r i n g ,
a s s e m b l y o f ri n g i n a n a p h a s e , i t l o os e s i t s s i z e b y l o o s i n g fi l a m e n t s .

A c t i o n p o t e n t i a l i s d u e t o a c t i n a n d my os i n m o l e c u l e s .
Signifi cance of mitosis

Maintenance of proper size

M a i n t e n a n c e o f e q u i l i b r i u m a m o u n t of dna and rna

G ro w t h a n d d e ve l o p m e n t of or g a n a n d b o d y

D e a d d e ca y i n g c e l l s r e p l a c e d

I nvo l ve d i n a s e x u a l r e p r o d u c t i on

G on a d s a n d s e x c e l l s d e p e n d o n m i t o s i s

C l e ava g e o f e g g a n d e m b r yo g e n e s i s b l a s t o g e n e s i s i n vo l ve m i t o s i s
cancer

How?
S i n g l e c e l l u n d e r g o e s t ra n s f or m a t i o n – t h a t i s m u t a t i o n i n g e n e s w h i c h c o d e f o r t h e
p ro t e i n s i n c e l l c yc l e c o n t r ol .

I f ce l l e va d e s d e s t r u c t i on f r o m I m m u n e s y s t e m , i t p r ol i f e ra t e s t o f o r m t u m o r .

I f t u m o r re m a i n s a t t h e p l a c e o f o r i g i n i t s b e n i g n , h a s l i m i t i n g m e m b ra n e

M a l i g n a n t t u m or s – c a p a b l e o f m e t a s t a s i s

Pe rs on w i t h m a l i g n a n t t u m o r i s s a i d t o h ave c a n c e r.

S p re a d to d i s t a n t o r g a n s i s k n o w n a s m e t a s t a s i s .
Cancer

What causes cancer/ why

Oncogene – cancer causing genes inserted In human genome by retro-virus e.g. cervical
cancer common.

Protooncogene - a n y g e n e t h a t c a n p o t e n t i a l l y c a u s e c a n c e r. G e n e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h G F, C e l l
cycle, tumor supressing genes (DNA repair gene).

50% cancers are due to faulty p53 gene

R a s g e n e f a m i l y – G T Pa s e , c e l l u l a r s i g n a l t ra n s d u c e r s , n o r m a l g r o w t h , p r o l i f e ra t i o n , m i g ra t i o n
of cells

30% cancers are due to Ras gene mutations.

Cancer

Strategies of cancer cells

1 ) S e c r e t e s i g n a l m o l e c u le s p r o m o t i n g a n g i o g e n e s i s , t h e r e f o r e n o a n c h o ra g e d e p e n d e n c e .
2 ) P r o c e e d p a s t c h e c k p o i n t s i n a b s e n c e o f gr o w t h f a c t o r, s o m e s y n t h e s i ze t h e m s e lv e s
3 ) S u p r e s s m e t a b o li s m o f s u r r o u n d i n g h e a l t h y c e l l s t o o b t a i n m o r e n u t r i t i o n f o r t h e m s e lv e s .

Treatment
1 ) S u r g i c a l r e m o va l i f p o s s i b l e
2 ) Tr e a t e d w i t h c o n c e n t ra t e d h ig h e n e r gy b e a m
3 ) M e t a s t a t ic c a n c e r is t r e a t e d b y c h e m o t h e ra py
4 ) e . g . p a c li t a xe l f r e e ze s s p i n d l e s . V i n b l a s t i n s t o p s s p i n d l e fi b r e s f o r m a t io n .
C h e m o – N a u s e a , h a i r lo s s , p o s s ib il i t y o f in f e c t io n .

Which cancers are common and why?

Meiosis

T h e p r o c e ss o f m e i o s i s i s c h a ra c t e r i s t i c o f o r g a n i s m s t h a t r e p r o d u c e s e x u a l l y.

2 phases – meiosis 1 and meiosis 2

M e i os i s 1 - Starts with a normal diploid cell (46 chromosomes) and end with 2 identical
c e l l s ( 4 6 c h r o m o s om e s )

M e i os i s 2 – 2 i d e n t i c a l c e l l s ( 4 6 c h r om o s o m e s ) d i v i d e , a n d 4 c e l l s f o r m e d h ave h a l f t h e
g e n e t i c m a t e ri a l ( 2 3 c h r o m o s o m e s )
Reason for variation
Signifi cance of Maintain constant amount of chromosomes.

meiosis. Crossing over = variation

 2 parents involved

Slower process

Involvement of sex cells

Sexual reproduction Produce diversity right from next generation.

Meiosis

Energetically ineffi cient

 Loss of heterozygosity

Risk of disease transmission in mating

Too costly – switching from mitosis to

Costs of sexual reproduction meiosis, to fi nd a mate

To fold cost of sex – males

 Evolves when selection changes over time.

Evolves when selection changes over space –

associations created by migrations

Evolves when organisms are less adapted to their

When does sex evolve. environment

Evolves when population is fi nite

 Red Queen Hypothesis
Wo r l d c h a n g e s c o n s t a n t l y – o r g a n i s m s m u s t a d a p t

Sexual adapt faster

Why sexual
Asexual may extinct
reproduction

Changing environment include interactions with other

organisms and parasites.

Genes increase genetic mixing, when under parasitic infection.

 Fisher Muller hypothesis
S e x a l l o w s a d v a n t a g e o u s a l l e l e s t h a t a r i s e i n d i ff e r e n t
individuals to be combined together in one.
Why sexual
reproduction G e n o t y p e l o s t a s s a m p l i n g fl u c t u a t i o n c a n b e r e g e n e r a t e d i n
sexual but not in asexual.
 Hypothesis based on size.

Ancestral state gametes are isogamous.

Larger the gamete more resources to zygote.

Why only 2 sexes. 2 large gametes – younger robust.

When 1 small and 1 large – decent start.

2 small fuse – No enough recourses.

So overtime smaller gametes overtime could only fuse with

bigger one
 Hurst – Hamilton Hypothesis
Ancestral state has isogamous gametes.

S e x e v o l v e d t o r e s o l v e g e n e t i c c o n fl i c t .

When gametes fuse – contribution in genetic material is equal from 2

gametes.

Chloroplast, mitochondria are variable and have their own DNA, its highly
l i k e l y t h a t o n e g a m e t e m a y c o n t r i b u t e m o r e i n o ff s p r i n g .

T h a t ’s w h y t o e n s u r e m a x a m o u n t o f g e n e t i c m a t e r i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n i n n e x t
gen, Organelle destroyer gene may evolve.

Why only 2 sexes H a v i n g o r g a n e l l e d e s t r o y e r g e n e i s g o o d a n d b a d , i t ’s a g r e e d y s t r a t e g y that

ensure max genetic material to pass on to next generation, that strategy is
s o g o o d t h a t , g e n e w i l l s p r e a d l i k e w i l d fi r e .

If 2 gametes fuse (Having ODG) zygote will not be viable.

As gene spread its more likely to happen.

This results in gene which will supress one selves ODG, we call it suppressor
gene.

Suppressor genes – suppress itself from killing other organelles, are prone to
destruction

S o t h e n e w p o p u l a t i o n h a s s u p p r e s s o r o r l a c k s u p p r e s s o r, m a k i n g i t
heterozygotic.
 Hurst – Hamilton Hypothesis
H i g h e s t r e p r o d u c t i v e fi t n e s s i s a c h i e v e d w h e n h e t e r o z y g o t i c g a m e t e
fuse.

Which may lead to evolution of chooser genes

Chooser gene – ensures fusion with opposite gamete type, done

Why only 2 sexes through protein recognition.

Over the period choosy and destroyer become non separable in

G e n o m e . T h a t ’s o v a

T h e g a m e t e s w h i c h h a v e s u p p r e s s o r w i l l b e s m a l l a s i t ’s o r g a n e l l e s
a r e g o i n g t o g e t d e s t r o y e d a n y w a y s . T h a t ’s s p e r m s .
 h t t p s : / / w w w. yo u t u b e . c o m / wa t c h ? v = e h u E a Lv A 1 B 4

Why only 2 sexes h t t p s : / / w w w. yo u t u b e . c o m / wa t c h ? v = q s n 4 z 7 b N b 1 4 & t

h t t p s : / / w w w. yo u t u b e . c o m / wa t c h ? v = 1 w 0 F i w fy U M M
 I n a s e x u a l l y r e p r o d u c i n g s p e c i e s M a l e s a n d f e m a l e s a r e d e fi n e d b y
the kind of gametes (reproductive cells) they produce.

1) Males –
How 2 sexes are defi ned? The individuals who produce lots of small, mobile gametes are called
males.

2) Females –

Those who invest everything in a relatively few large gametes are

called females.
 A component of natural selection

sexual selection to be a component of “broad-sense” natural selection.

“Narrow-sense” natural selection will be used to describe other components
o f fi t n e s s , s u c h a s l o n g e v i t y, f e c u n d i t y, a n d p a r e n t a l i n v e s t m e n t

M a t i n g s u c c e s s t r a d e s o ff w i t h s u r v i v a l

Natural selection vs sexual selection

Sexual Selection E x a m p l e - ( s w o r d t a i l fi s h e s ) ( R a p p e r v s C o k e d e a l e r s )

Limiting sex –

Sex which has weaker reproductive success or is limited.

Sex with more resource investment and parental care tends to be limiting.

Sex with low numbers in that population of species is tend to be limiting.

 If a change in trait is going to increase lifetime reproductive
success, by improving attract or controlling of mate or to
achieve fer tilisation can be favoured even if it lowers survival
p r o b a b i l i t y.

S e x u a l s e l e c t i o n w i l l c h a n g e t r a i t s t h a t i n fl u e n c e m a t i n g
success, Until the improvement is balanced by costs in other
areas.

This explains why organisms take risks to mate , Risk Hai to

ishq hai.
Sexual selection
Also explains why juveniles develop secondary sexual
characters after maturation (Competitive behaviour instead of
nurturing)

S e x u a l d i m o r p h i s m – D i ff e r e n c e s i n t r a i t s o f m a l e s a n d
f e m a l e s – E . g ., M o r t a l i t y r a t e a n d b l o c k h e a d e d b e h a v i o u r
(Culturally or genetically)

Isogamy can't produce dimorphism and selection.

 Mechanisms that can Result in sexual
selection.
1 ) C om p e t i t i on – n o n l i m i t i n g s e x i s c o m p e t i t i ve
Sexual selection
2 ) C h o o s y B e h av i o u r –

G e n e ra l l y L i m i t i n g s e x i s c h o o s y. ( G e n e ra l l y f e m a l e s )

Limiting sex is the one with the lower maximum rate

 L i mi ti ng s e x i s choo sy o t he r s e x i s comp e t i ti ve (l i mi t i ng
s e xe s may co mp et e t o o e.g . h a r e m he l d by fema le b ir d s )

C om pe t it ion for m a te s –

1) Con t e st s –

a ) out comp et in g be fore ma t in g (s ize , w e a pon s )

b) avoi din g comp et i ti on – (sn e a ky s tra t eg ie s)

c) in f an t ici de

Competition d) g am e tic comp et it i on –

d.1 la rg e n u mb er of spe rms or l a rge r ova

d.2 -gon a da l s t ra te gy – gon a ds effi cie n t th e b et t er

d.3 - a bil it y t o avoi d ga me t e comp et it ion – m at e

g u a rdi n g a nd m a te p lu g s

2 ) S cra mb l e s – s en s or y (h e arin g a n d olf a ct i on ) l ocom oto r y

3 ) E nd ura nce r i va l r i e s – m a ti n g a nd l on ge vi ty p osi t ive ly

corel a te d
 Limiting sex is choosy

M a t e c h o i c e – i t ’s a c o m p e t i t i o n t o b e c h o s e n t h r o u g h b e h a v i o u r a l a n d
m o r p h o l o g i c a l t r a i t s t h a t o p p o s i t e s e x fi n d a t t r a c t i v e

C h o o s i n g m a t e c a n i n c r e a s e o ff s p r i n g s fi t n e s s

But choice has its cost –

To o m u c h c h o o s i n e s s c a n l e a d t o n o o ff s p r i n g s ( f o r e v e r s i n g l e - S e l m o n
Bhoi) – seasonal maters and the species that are constrained by time)

Mate choice
If choosy individuals of a species, choose a very few individuals or traits,
Stronger is the selection for that trait, stronger the dimorphism.

If choosy individuals of a species, choose variety of traits, weaker the

selection pressure, less the dimorphism.

H o w w e d e fi n e a t t r a c t i v e n e s s ?

Individual from competing sex who gets lot of action is considered attractive.

Getting low action considered unattractive.

 D i r e c t b e n e fi t s – c o n t r o l l i n g r e s o u r c e s , c o n t r o l l i n g
territories, parental care, nuptial gift, higher quality of
Mate choice criteria's
resources.

Good genes, compatible genes, genes against parasites and

genes of immune system.

Ornaments, Cour tship Behaviour- sexy son

Sensory bias - B i a s To w a r d s a Tr a i t .
 Ecuador

Collect food from soil

Bigger clawed male is preferred,

Crabs fi ght for territories and sometimes for

females attention.
Fiddler crabs

Female choice for – good genes, Burden,

sexy son.

Male-male competition
Blue Tit Bird
Kempenaers (2005)

Males are selected on the basis of

a t t ra c t i ve n e s s .

Blue patch on Head, which cant be seen in

j u ve n i l e s .

C o - r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n A t t r a c t i ve n e s s a n d t h e m
b e i n g b i g g e r a n d l i v i n g l o n g e r wa s p o s i t i ve l y
co-related.
AUSTRALIAN REDB ACK
SPIDER.
(MAYDIANNE C.B. ANDRADE)
AUSTRALIAN REDBACK
SPIDER.
M a l e s E va d e c a n n i b a l i s m b y m a t i n g i m m a t u r e f e m a l e s .
(MAYDIANNE C.B.
ANDRADE)
Golden Orb
weaver
Eric Yip 2016

Fema les e at 8 0% of t he m a le s
be fore or af t er m a tin g .

M al es a re ch oosy due t o
ca n nib ali sm by fe m al es .

M al es choose Youn g a nd f at
fe mal es whi ch i ndi ca te s
fe cu ndi ty.
Katydids

Fe m a l e - Fe m a l e co m p e t i t i o n - D a r r y l T.
Gwynne 1999

M a l e D i r e c t B e n e fi t s b y g i v i n g
s p e r m a t o p h o r e s f or n o u ri s h m e n t ( N u p t i a l
gifts) - Lehmann 2012
 Limiting sex is the one with lower maximum reproductive rate.

L i m i t i n g s e x i s c h o o s y.

S o m e t i m e s m a l e s a r e c h o o s y, s o m e t i m e s f e m a l e s .

Males give nuptial gifts to females (Spermatophores for nourishment)

Male-male competition –

So male with more resources are selected, males compete to get females.

Female-Female Competition –

Katydids W h e n Re s o u r c e s a r e s c a r e s , M a l e s b a c k o ff , d o n ’ t m a t e . N o w l i m i t i n g s e x i s
males.

N o w f e m a l e s fi g h t o v e r m a l e s a n d m a l e s b e c o m e c h o o s y.

W h e n F o o d i s a b u n d a n t , t h e y d o n ’ t n e e d n u p t i a l g i f t s a n d t h a t ’s w h y t h e y
choose best males.
Birds of paradise
Peacock

E x t ra va g a n t m a l e s .

To i m p r e s s f e m a l e h a v i n g t h a t b u r d e n i s a b i g r i s k .

D o n’ t p a r t i c i p a t e i n p a r e n t a l c a r e .

Only things they get are maybe – Good genes

Having extravagant characters suggest –

1) C a n s u r v i v e w i t h b u r d e n – Za h a v i

2) Pa r a s i t e f r e e

3) Good foraging gene, Cost to maintain beautiful ornaments is high.

Sage grouse

E a s t O re g o n l a ke s

M a t i n g r i t u a l n e a r f r o z e n l a ke s , M a l e s p u ff u p
a n d s t a r t p ro d u c i n g ‘ P O P ’ s o u n d .

Fe m a l e s s e l e c t m o s t b e a u t i f u l a n d l o u d m a l e .

R i s k s – Kayo t e e s a n d g o l d e n e a g l e s h e a r t h a t
s o u n d to o.
Widow Birds.

Found in Kenya

Malte Andersson (1982)

Males Control territories

Widowbirds
B i g g e r t h e t a i l s , m or e t h e m a t e s

2X length tails were preferred that were experimentally made.

I n c o n t r o l l e d s i t u a t i o n t h e r e i s o p p o s i n g f o r c e s o f n a t u ra l s e l e c t i o n
against length of tails. (bigger the tails more the risk of predation)

Ye t i n c o n t r o l l e d s i t u a t i o n , Fe m a l e s p r e f e r r e d l o n g t a i l s

H y p o t h e s i s – Fe m a l e a r e l o o k i n g f o r i n d i c a t o r m e c h a n i s m

T h a t i s f e m a l e i s l o ok i n g f or H o n e s t a n d c o s t l y s i g n a l s t h a t m a y
s u g g e s t g o o d g e n e s , s u p e r i or s u r v i va l a b i l i t y.

G e n e s m i g h t i n c l u d e – Pa ra s i t e p a t h o g e n r e s i s t a n t , M H C a l l e l e s
( I m m u n e s y s t e m ) – z y g o t e l e ve l r e j e c t i o n , m a t i n g l e ve l r e j e c t i o n .

C o s t l i e r t h e o r n a m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e – B e t t e r r e s i s t a n t t o p a ra s i t e s .
Guppies

E x p e r i m e n t s u g g e s t i n g t h a t R u n awa y
s e l e c t i o n a n d s e x y- s o n m a y b e t h e
mechanism of sexual selection.

K . Ka r i n o 2 0 0 4
 Orange spots on males are preferred by females.

Male can generate those orange spots made from carotenoids.

They get those carotenoids by hunting little crustaceans.

So more the Orange spot, better he is at hunting, better foraging genes so

better survival.

Females choose Males with orange spot for that reason.

When Guppies are moved to an area without crustaceans –

Guppies Females still are choosing the males with orange spots.

Those orange spots do not indicate any of the previously mentioned reasons,
yet females are choosing guppies with orange spots.

Over the generations sensory bias is developed in female guppies towards

orange spots.

N o w m a l e s c a n i n f a c t e x p l o i t t h a t b i a s , j u s t b y i n v e s t i n g m o r e e n e r g y,
resources into making those orange spots.

Now runway selection star ts

PHEASANTS
AND
BARN SWALLOWS
Redback Stickleback

Re d s p o t s p r e f e r r e d

r e d d e r t h e fi s h m o r e r e s i s t a n t t o
p a ra s i t e .
 Fe m a l e s i n h e r i t s e n s o r y c a p a c i t i e s f r o m a n c e s t o r s a s
well as preferences.

T h e t ra i t t h a t f e m a l e s e l e c t m a y n o t p os s e s a ny
Sensory Bias
r e l e va n t re a s o n .

L i ke – s e x y s o n , g o o d g e n e s .
Tungara frogs

C ra z y S t u p i d L o ve :

T h e F r o g W i t h a M a t i n g C a l l T h a t A l s o At t r a c t s P r e d a t o r s

S t u d y i n s e x u a l s e l e c t i o n a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n – R ya n M . j . 1 9 8 5

M a te r e c o g n i t i o n – R ya n M . J, R a n d A . S. 2 0 0 3

C u e s fo r e a ve s d r o p p e r s : d o f r o g c a l l s i n d i c a t e p r e y d e n s i t y a n d
q u a l i t y ? – B e r n a l X . E , M . J . Rya n , R a n d A . S . 2 0 0 6
 Fe m a l e e a r d r u m o f t u n g a r a f r o g s – Tu n e d t o r e c e i ve s o m e
f r e q u e n c i e s b e t t e r.

M a l e s c r o a k f o r f e m a l e s a t t e n t i on i n t h e l a ke s .

Fr i n g e l i p b a t l i ve s a r o u n d t h a t a r e a , w h i c h c a n h e a r t h e m a l e
c r o a k i n g w h i c h f e m a l e s p r e f e r.
Tungara Frogs
Fr i n g e l i p b a t g e t e a s y p r e y.

N ow i d e a i s t h a t t h o s e p oo r m a l e s c a n t e vo l ve o u t o f t h e s i t u a t i o n .

A s f e m a l e s p r e f e r c r oa k i n g s o u n d w h i c h i s r i s k i e r f o r t h e i r s u r v i va l .

Predation pressure vs sexual pressure working against males.

Sword tail fi sh and platy fi sh

Basoslo AL 1990 – preference of platy

fi sh females towards sword fi sh males.

Basol o AL 1995 – Pre sensor y Bias

Gil G. Rosenthal and Christopher S.

Evans 1998 – Experiment suggesting
body size was the major factor.

Kang JH 2013 – ancestral platy fi sh may

have sword like tails
 I n n a t u r e s h or t e r t a i l s a r e p r e f e r r e d

S w o r d t a i l fi s h Fe m a l e s p r e f e r l o n g e r t a i l s o n m a l e s .

Re a s o n - i n d i c a t o r m e c h a n i s m s .

O d d l y e n ou g h , p l a t y fi s h f e m a l e s p r e f e r s w o r d fi s h
m a l e s w i t h l o n g e r t a i l , e ve n i f t h e i r s p e c i e s h a s s h o r t e r
tails.
Sword tail and platy fi sh

Might be a example of sensory bias.

A n c e s t r a l p l a t y fi s h w i t h l o n g e r t a i l s m i g h t b e p os s i b l e .

O r i t s j u s t t h a t , p l a t y fi s h a r e p r e f e r r i n g b o d y s i z e .
 Male-male competition –

Elephant seal engage in bloody battle with other males, to get

access of females.

Winner of the battle controls a territory and harem of 50-60

females.

T h e y a r e s l u g g i s h o n l a n d wh e r e t h e y ma t e . I t s d i ffi c u l t t o
control all space.
Elephant seals Juvenile males hangout around the boundaries, sneak mating.

W h a t a b o u t c h oi c e o f f e m a l e s ?

I t d o e s p l a y p a r t i n b u t i t s ra r e , a n d n o t t h e ma i n f a c t o r f o r
dimorphism.

Fe ma l e g i v e a p e c u l i a r c a l l , i f u n d e s i ra b l e m a l e mo u n t s o t h a t
o t h e r ma l e s fi g h t f o r s e x .
 M a l e s b l u ff ( Ro a r i n g , Pa ra l l e l w a l k i n g , d i s p l ay o f
weapons) and duel for territories or food mating is the
ultimate prize.
examples of male-male
Fights – Lions, Baboons, stags, stag beetles, chimps
competition
Guarding

Fr o g s , t oa d s w r e s t l e s

Blackbirds, robins – sing and defend

B e h av i ou ra l A g g r e s s i on .
 The Wattled Jacan a
Stephen Emlen 2001

Po l ya n d r o u s b i r d s

More males and females.

Limiting sex is male.

Fe m a l e s c o m p e t e .

Wa t t l e d j a c a n a f e m a l e s h a v e h a r e m s o f 2 - 3 m a l e s .

Fe m a l e s fi g h t f o r t e r r i t o r y, f o r g o o d q u a l i t y m a l e s . Fe m a l e j a c a n a s w i l l m o v e
i n o n a n o t h e r f e m a l e ' s t e r r i t o r y, g o t o t h e n e s t , a n d k i l l t h e c h i c k s . T h e m a l e
t h e n b e c o m e s t h e o b j e c t o f t h e i n va d i n g f e m a l e ' s c o u r t i n g .

Fe m a l e s m a t e w i t h a s m a n y m a l e s a s p o s s i b l e .

Males take care of eggs and young ones. Males even have special wing
adaptations that allow them to carry two chicks under each wing.
This entire system based on female dominance has evolved, some researchers believe,
to compensate for an extraordinarily high rate of egg loss to predators. The world of
t h e j a c a n a h a s , i n e ff e c t , t u r n e d t h e f e m a l e i n t o " a n e g g - m a k i n g m a c h i n e , " s a y s C o r n e l l
University biologist Stephen Emlen
The red phalarope
Gwynne 1991
Clutton-Brock & Vincent, 1991
Kvarn emo & Ahne sjo 19 96
Marie-Andrée Giroux 2006

Female-female competition like The Wattled Jacana.

Females Ovaries secrete testosterone when fi ghting

f or territories

oestrogen when laying egg.

M a t in g s y s te m s
p a re n t a l c a re
s e x ra t io s

Monogamy –

Equal number of males and females.

E a c h i n d i v i d u a l h a v e 1 s e x u a l p a r t n e r.

Both parents work as team, invest equally

(except female investment is more due to
p r e g n a n c y a n d s t u ff )

Equal reproductive success.

Less dimorphic in nature.

 Po l ya n d r y –

More Males, Less females.

1 Female have 2+ males.

Low reproductive success for males

Limiting resource is males.

F e m a l e s fi g h t o v e r m a l e s , s o f e m a l e s c o m p e t i t i v e ( Te r r i t o r i a l , c o u r t s h i p b e h a v i o u r )
and beautiful too.

Mating systems A s w e l l a s m a l e c h o i c e a t p l a y.

parental care Less variation in males.

Dimorphism high.
sex ratios
Po l y g y n y –

More females, less males.

1 male have more than 1 partners.

Female is limiting sex.

Low reproductive success for females.

Males compete.

females choose.

Female investment is highest.

male do not exhibit parental care.

 S o c i e t i e s c a n b e m o n o g a m o u s , p ol y g a m o u s , p o l ya n d r o u s .

A t t ra c t i ve t ra i t s a r e u n s u r m o u n t a b l e .

S e x ra t i o s d i ff e r l oc a l l y.
Human sexual selection
E a c h s e x c a n a c t c o m p e t i t i ve a s w e l l a s c h oo s y.

H u m a n m a t i n g s y s t e m i s w ay t o o c o m p l e x .
 1 ) Wha t i s s exua l di mor phism –
D i ff e r e n c e s i n s i z e a n d / o r a p p e a r a n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e x e s i n a d d i t i o n t o
sexual organs themselves.

2 ) Why Sexual Dimorphism?

Parental investment –
1 ) E n e r g y a n d t i m e e x p e n d e d i n e i t h e r o r b o t h : p r o d u c i n g a n o ff s p r i n g a n d
caring for it.
2) Producing eggs (or pregnancies) are more expensive than ejaculates.

3 ) Sexua l Selec tion is the driver fo r sexual dimor phism –

Male and Female sexes Intra-sexual selection (male-male competition)
Inter-sexual selection (female choice)

4 ) Repr oduc tive success limited by –

Females: Limited by no. of eggs and /or pregnancies
males: Limited by no. of females mated (access to mates )

5 ) Intras exual Behavior –

Members of the sex investing little resources in progeny will be competitive.
(They should compete among themselves for access to females)
M e m b e r s o f t h e i n v e s t i n g a l o t o f r e s o u r c e s i n p r o g e n y w i l l b e c h o o s y. ( s i n c e
h e r i n v e s t m e n t i s l a r g e r, s h e h a s m o r e t o l o s e b y m a k i n g a b a d d e c i s i o n . )
 

h t t p s : / / w w w. y o u t u b e . c o m / w a t c h ? v = M P H T N m 4 M o e A & l i s t = W L & i n d e x = 2 & t = 2 3 6 s