APEC- ART AND CULTURE

ARCHITECTURE
TIPS TO FOLLOW FOR PRELIMS-
A&C
• Don’t focus just on random factual details.
• Time-period in which they were built
• Important features of various styles
• Geography of the place in which these
monuments were built
• Current Affairs
• PYQ
• Sources: Class XI (NCERT), NITIN SINGHANIA
(Selectively).
• Emphasize on Revision
Understanding: Art and Culture
• Art is a work of creation of the mind.
It can be classified into- Visual arts
and performing arts
• Culture is a way of life. It
encompasses every aspect of a
human life and art is an integral part
of a society’s culture.
• Art and culture influences each
other
 When did architecture began in India?
• Difficult to pin-point exactly
• Reasons: perishable nature of material used, weather events etc.
• The example of Stonehenge, England
• Such examples are there in India as well in the form of Megalithic burials.
• Megalithic burials: Dated 1100 BCE- 300 BCE.
• Megalithic stones in South India (3rd century BCE- 1st century AD). Places:
Paiyampalli (TN), Hallur (Karnataka), Naikund (Maharashtra), Takalghat
(Maharashtra), Hire Benakal (Karnataka), Nagarjunakonda, Andhra Pradesh,
Adichanallur, Tamil Nadu, Thrissur, Kerala, Jaunapani, Maharashtra, Maski,
Karnataka, Piklihal, Karnataka, Brahmagiri, Karnataka etc.
Indus Valley Civilization
 Features of IVC town planning
o Expert town planning and engineering skills
o The Harappan people had constructed mainly three types of buildings-dwelling houses, pillared halls and public baths
o The settlements could be traced as far back as third millennium BC
o Some important settlements were excavated on the banks of the river Indus
o Presence of walled cities
o Rectangular grid pattern
o Use of standardized mud-bricks
o There is evidence of building of big dimensions which perhaps were public buildings, administrative or business centres, pillared halls and
courtyards, there is no evidence of temples.
o Public buildings include granaries which were used to store grains
o Evidence of working people’s quarters
o Great bath at Mohenjo-Daro
o Citadels at the western side containing granaries
o Evidence of fortifications also because of the fear of being attacked
o Lothal- a presence of dockyard
o Drainage system
o Evidence of double storied
o Doors were constructed on the side lanes
o Use of gypsum to make the construction was known
o Presence of irrigation channels as well
Sl. No. Name of Site Location Distinctive Features

1.
Lothal On the Gulf of Cambay in Gujarat, 1. Dockyard
on the banks of Bhogava river, a 2. Remains of rice (1800 BCE)
tributary of Sabarmati 3. Practice of fire cult
4. Double/multiple burial
5. It is on UNESCO’S Tentative List of World Heritage Sites
 
 
Current affairs: The Ministry of Culture will set up a Maritime Museum at Lothal, situated on the Gulf of
Cambay (Khambat) as announced in the Union Budget 2020.

2.
Kalibangan Rajasthan, on the banks of river 1. Ploughed field
Ghaggar-Hakra 2. Many houses with wells
3. Fortified lower town
4. Rectangular or oval grave-pits, pot burial
5. Several pre-Harappan settlements
6. Presence of fire altars
 

3.
Dholavira Gujarat (Kuchh district) 1. An inscription comprising ten large sized signs of the Harappan script
2. Town divided into three parts: citadel, middle and lower town
3. First astronomical observatory
4. Megalithic burial
Current affairs: Dholavira has been included in the UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites List in 2021.
 

4.
Banawali Haryana (Fatehabad district), on the 1. Terracotta replica of plough
dry bed of river Saraswati 2. A good quantity of barley
3. Radial roads
4. Exhibits three phases of IVC: PRE-Harappan, Harappan and post-Harappan
 

5.
Harappa Punjab, Pakistan, on the banks of 1. Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni (1879-1939) was a pivotal figure in the discovery of Harappa
Ravi 2. Citadel and lower town
3. Six granaries
4. Bust of the bearded man
Mohenjodaro Sindh, Pakistan, on the banks of 1. Citadel and lower town
the Indus river 2. Great Bath, a tank for community use on the citadel
3. The granary is the largest building
4. Terracotta figurine of the Mother Goddess
5. Pashupathi seal

Chanhudaro Sindh, Pakistan, on the banks of 1. A manufacturing hub for carnelian beads, steatite seals and bangles
Saraswati river  

Rakhigarhi Haryana, on the Ghaggar-Hakra 1. The biggest Indus Valley site discovered so far
plain 2. Artefacts like seals, bangles, potsherds with Harappan script inscriptions all correspond to the
Mature Phase of the IVC
3. Farmana, Girawad and Mitathal are the other Harappan sites in Haryana

Surkotada Kutch, Gujarat, on the Bhogava river 1. It was discovered and excavated by Shri Jagat Pati Joshi of ASI in 1964-1968.
2. It has a fortified citadel, residential annexe, made of mud brick, mud lumps and rubble, containing
houses with bathrooms and drains
3. It has also yielded a heavy copper celt and a chisel and the usual Harappa beads, chert blades,
etc.

Alamgirpur Uttar Pradesh, close to the Hindon 1. The easternmost IVC site
River, a tributary of Yamuna
Kot Diji Sindh, Pakistan, on 1. A forerunner of Indus Valley Civilisation with settlements
the Indus River dating before 3000 BCE.
 

Mehrgarh Pakistan, on the banks 1. Pit burials

of the Bolan river 2. It is on UNESCO’S World Heritage Sites Tentative List
Kota Bhadli, Gujarat
 Vedic Aryans
 The Vedic Aryans who came next, lived-in houses built of
wood, bamboo and reeds
 Aryan culture was a rural settlement, hence there is absence
of grand architectural examples
 Vedic Aryans built fire altars, soon courtyard and mandaps
were built with altars for worship of fire which was the most
important feature of architecture.
 Their contribution to the architectural history is the use of
wood along with brick and stone for building their houses.
 Mauryan architecture

 It can be divided into- court art

and popular art
 Their art is characterized by
smooth surface
 Court art:
o Kumhrar (Patna): Ashoka’s
palace. Fa Hien commented
on Ashoka’s palace and so
does Megasthenes
o Pataliputra was modelled on
Persepolis
Pillars:
o Cut from two stones
o Mines: Mathura and Chunnar
o Symbols: inverted lotus flower, lion, bull,
elephant, horse, spoked wheel etc.
o Places where pillars are found: Topra, Meerut,
Kausambhi, Rampurva, Champaran, Mehrauli,
Lauriya Nandangarh, Vaishali etc.
o Ashokan Pillar in Delhi was transported in Delhi
by Firoz Shah Tughlak
o Some pillars had edicts (proclamations) inscribed
upon them.
Stupas:
o It had already existed
o Burial mounds since Vedic period
o Stupas can be divided into: circular
anda, harmika, chhatra, medhi and
Vedika
o Unburnt bricks at the core and burnt
bricks outer walls
o Places: Rajgriha, Vasihali, Kapilavastu,
Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethapida,
Pava, Kushinagar and Pippalavana
 Sanchi Stupa
- Located in the gorge of Betwa
river
- Made of polished sandstone
- Objective: to commemorate first
sermon
- Sandstone quarried from Chunar
- Shalbhanjikas 
- UNESCO World Heritage Site
 Amaravati Stupa
• Located in the gorge of Krishna
River
• The stupa is related to
the Vajrayana teachings
• Hieun Tsang visited Amaravati Stupa
• Stone and white sandstone
• Centres – Nagarujnakonda and
Jaggayapeta, Goli
 Bharhut Stupa
• Madhya Pradesh
• Bharhut is the name of the hill
situated nearby
• Dark red sandstone was used in
its construction
• It was quarried from Kaimur
hills in Central India
• It was discovered by Alexander
Cunningham
 Gompas
o Monastery in vogue since
Mahayana phase of
Buddhism
o Regions where they are
found: Ladakh region
Hemis Gompa : Situated 47 km from Leh, Hemis Monastery lies on the west bank of Indus River.
Founded by the first incarnation of Stagsang Raspa Nawang Gyatso, Hemis Monastery in leh is thronged
by number of visitors all the year round.

Tawang Monastery : Situated in Arunachal Pradesh, Tawang Monasstery lies in the Bomidilla District.
Situated at an altitude of approximately 10,000 ft, it is one of the largest buddhist monasteries in India.

Rumtek Monastery: Also known as the Dharmachakra Centre, Rumtek Monastery is a Tibetan Buddhist
Monastery located in the state of Sikkim. It is amongst the cherished pilgrimage site and one of the
important buddhist sites eats of Kagyu school of Buddhism outside Tibet.

Namgyal Tsemo Gompa

It was built in 1430 AD and has a rich collection of Buddhist literature, art, manuscripts and images of
Buddha in its three storey high structure. One can have the birds' eye view of Leh town from this
monastery.
Spituk Monastery

It is located on a high hill at a distance of around 18 km from Leh. It is known for the collection of various
ancient Buddhist paintings and artifacts. An annual festival is organised in Spituk monastery in the eleventh
month of Tibetan calendar from 17th to 19th day.

Lamayuru Gompa

This monastery is located on the rocky mountain at a distance of around 125 km from Leh towards West. It is also
known by the name of Swastika monastery. The annual festival attracts a large number of visitors in the second
month of Tibetan calendar.

Alchi Gompa

Alchi Gompa is located on the bank of Indus river and is the only monastery of Ladakh built on flat ground. It
showcases the Kashmiri art and architecture in its construction. There are various beautiful images of Lord
Buddha inside the gompa.

Shey Gompa

This monastery served as the summer palace of Ladakh Kings and is located to the South of Leh. The main
attraction of the monastery is the 12 feet high gold plated statue of Shakya Muni Buddha. An annual festival is
celebrated here in the first month of Tibetan calendar, which attracts a large number of visitors.
Popular art
•Cave architecture:
 Used as resting houses (viharas)
initially
 Earliest caves were used by
Ajivikas (Ashoka donated Sudama
and lomas rishi caves)
 Polished surfaces and decorative
gateways
 Ex: Barabar, Nagarjuni caves and
Nasik caves
Bhaja caves,
Maharasthra
Hinayana sect of
Buddhism
The Bhaja Caves
share the
architectural
design with the
Karla Caves.
Post-Mauryan art
 Architecture
o Rock-cut caves:
 Viharas in the Mauryan times but Chaityas
in the post-Mauryan times
 Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves, Odisha:
Built during the time of Kharavelas
 Udayagiri caves: Hathigumpha inscription
 Stupas:
o It became more decorative
o Stone became the chief medium
o Shungas introduced the idea of Toranas
 GUPTA AGE
Caves: extensive use of mural paintings became a characteristic feature of this phase
 Ajanta caves:
1. Rock-cut caves located near Waghora river, Maharashtra
2. Time period: 250 BC- 650 AD
3. Patronage by Vakataka king
4. Stories mainly from the lives of Buddha
5. Absence of blue color
6. Usage of fresco painting technique
7. Hinayana and Mahayana phase of Buddhism both are represented here
 Ellora caves
1. Buddhist + Jainism + Hindu
2. Patronaged by- Rashtrakutas and Yadava dynasty
3. Visvakarma cave, Dashavatara temple, Kailashnath temple (built during Krishna I)
 Bagh caves
1. Baghmi river, MP
2. Rang Mahal- famous one
 Junagarh caves
1. Located in Gujarat
2. Buddhist caves
3. Presence of high citadel: Upar kot
 Mandapeshwara caves
1. Maharashtra
2. Converted into Christianity
 Udayagiri caves
1. Vidisha, MP
2. Patronaged under Chandragupta II
o Stupa: Dhamek stupa at Sarnath
Karle cave
- Maharashtra
- Largest Chaitya-griha
- Lion-pillars in front of the chaitya
Kanheri caves
- Maharasthra
- G Satakarani’s name inscribed here
Pandavleni caves
- Hinayana phase of Buddhism
- Mentions G satakarani’s mother in the inscription
Elephanta caves
- Maharasthra
- Trimurti carving
 Temple architecture
The Gupta period marks the beginning of North Indian temple architecture.
Gupta temples were of 5 main types:
1. Square building with flat roof. Ex: Kankali devi at tigawa (M.P) and
Vishnu and varaha temple at Eran.
2. An elaboration of the first type with the extension of pradakshina
around the garbhagriha. Ex: Shiva temple at bhumara and ladh-khan at
aihole.
3. Square temple with a low and squat tower called shikara. Ex: Ara
temple (Built in stones at Deogarh, Jhansi district). From this stage,
Panchayatana style of temple was introduced.
4. Rectangular temple with an apsidal back and barrel-vaulted roof. Ex:
Thair Temple (Solapur, MH), Kapoteshwara Temple (Tezarla, Telengana.)
5. Circular temple with shallow rectangular projections at the four
cardinal faces, the only monument exemplifying this type is Maniyar
Matha temple at Rajgir, Bihar.
 Nagara style
Nagara style
1. Panchayatana style
2. Upraised platforms
3. Types of shikhara: Latina (square),
Phamsana (broader) and Valabhi
(rectangular)
4. Amalaka and Kalasha
5. Types: Odisha school, Khajuraho
temple and Solanki school
Odisha school
1. Exterior walls were elaborately
decorated
2. No use of pillars
3. Shikhara- Rekha deul
4. Mandapa was known as
Jagamohan
5. Boundary wall like Dravidian
style
6. Ex: Sun temple, Konark;
Jagannath temple, Puri
Khajuraho school
1. Patronized by Chandela
rulers
2. Higher platform
compared to other
styles
3. Ex: Kandariya Mahadev
Temple
Solanki school
1. Gujarat and nearby
areas
2. Devoid of any
carvings
3. Presence of Surya
kund
4. East-facing temples
5. Ex: Modhera Sun
temple, Gujarat
 Temple architecture in South India

1. Mahendra Group: mandapas. Ex: The best examples

of Mahendra group of monuments are the cave
temples at Mandagapattu, Pallavaram and Mamandur
2. Narasimha group: Ratha
3. Rajasimha group: structural temples. Ex: Shore
temple (Narasimhavarman II) and Kailashnath temple
(Narasimhavarman II)
4. Nandivarman group: smaller in size
Mahabalipuram temples
 Ratha: Draupadi Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Bhima Ratha,
Nakula-Sahadeva Ratha and Dharmaraja Ratha
 Descent of the Ganges
 Rock-cut caves: Varaha caves, Krishna caves,
panchapandava temple and mahishasuramardini
temple
Dravidian temple style: Chola architecture
 High boundary walls
 Gopurams
 Dvarapalas
 Temple tank
 Panchayatana style
 Vimana: pyramidical structure
 Imposing structures
 Sub-types:
1. Kuta or Caturasra: square-shaped
2. Shala or Ayatasra: rectangular-shaped
3. Gaja-prishta or vrittayata or elephant-backed:
elliptical
4. Vritta: circular
5. Ashtasra: octagonal
Nayaka school
 Also known as Madurai school
 Larger than Dravidian and also had Islamic influence
 Madurai Meenakshi temple: largest gopuram in the world
Vesara style
 Nagara plus Dravidian
 Virupaksha Temple in Pattadakal and Swarga Brahma temple at Alampur, Karnataka
 Curvilinear nature of shikhara and square base of Dravidian temple
 Chalukyas, Hoysalas and Rashtrakutas
Vijayanagara school
 Highly decorative
 Amman shrines
 Gopurams on all sides
 Monolithic rock pillars
 Kalyana mandapa
 Ex: Lotus temple, Vithalswami temple at Hampi
Hoysala temples
 Star designed shape
 Soft soapstone
 Multiple shrines
 Upraised platforms
Pala and sena school of architecture
 Universities of Nalanda, Jagaddala, Odantapuri and Vikramshila
 Dhakeshwari temple in Bangladesh
 Curved or sloping bamboo roofs
 Terracotta bricks
Indo-Islamic architecture
 Arcuate style: arches and domes
 Use of minars
 Mortar
 Spaciousness was the norm
 Calligraphy
 Arabesque method
 Jaali works
 Charbagh style of gardening
 Use of pietra-dura
 Foreshortening technique
Architecture during the Delhi sultanate period
•Slave dynasty
1. Mameluke style
2. Qutub Minar
3. Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque
4. Adhai Din ka Jhonpra
•Khilji dynasty
1. Seljuk style of architecture
2. Use of red sandstone
3. Alai Darwaza
•Tughlaq dynasty
1. Use of grey sandstone
2. Sloping wall design to give better strength
•Lodi dynasty
1. Introduction of double domes
2. Built in octagonal shapes
3. Lodi gardens, city of Agra
 Provincial school of architecture
Bengal school: Bricks and Bengal marble. Ex: Adina mosque
Jaunpur school
 It is also known as Sharqi style
 Avoided the use of minars
 Bold and forceful paintings
 Ex: Atala mosque
Malwa school
 Different colored stones and marbles. Minars were not used.
 Large windows which are a European influence
 Pathan school of architecture
 Artificial reservoirs: Baulis
 Ex: Jahaz mahal
•Bijapur school
 3 arched façades
 Bulbous domes
 Use of cornices
 Ex: Gol Gumbaz
Mughal architecture
•Babur: Kabuli Bagh Mosque, Haryana
•Humayun: Dinpanah
•Sher Shah
1. Mosque of Old fort
2. Rohtas fort, Pakistan
3. Great road
4. Tomb at Sasaram, Bihar
5. Used red sandstone
•Akbar
1. Use of red sandstone
2. Use of Tudor arch
3. Buildings: Agra fort, Fatehpur Sikri, Buland Darwaza, Salim Chishti’s tomb (white marble), Panch Mahal,
Jodha Bai, Ibadat Khana, Hiran Minar
•Jahangir
1. Akbar’s tomb in Sikandra
2. Shalimar Bagh
3. Moti Masjid
4. Tomb of Itmad-ud-daula
•Shah Jahan
1. Taj mahal
2. Red fort
3. Jama Masjid
4. Shalimar Bagh
5. Shahjanabad
6. Peacock throne
Temples in Kashmir
1. Trefoil arches
2. Cellular layout and enclosed courtyard
3. Straight edged pyramidal roof
4. Column walls
5. Ex: Martand Sun temple, Avantiswami and
Avantisvara, Pandrethan temple, Mamleshwar
Shiva temple etc.
Modern architecture
Portuguese influence
 Iberian style of architecture
 Patio houses and baroque style
 St Cathedral church; Basilica Bom Jesus
British influence
 Gothic style of architecture
 Neo-roman architecture
Indo-Gothic style
 Indian plus Persian plus Gothic styles
 Extremely large and elaborate
 Walls were thinner
 Large windows
 Crucified ground plan
Famous Indian architectural monuments
that UPSC loves
1. Suryanarayana Temple
- AP
- Sun God
2. Veerabhadra temple
- AP
- Lord Shiva
- Based on Vijayanagara architectural tradition
3. Kamakhya temple
- Assam
- One of the Shakthi pithas
4. Somnath temple
- Gujarat
- Dedicated to Lord Shiva
- Built in the Chalukyan style
- Ghazni plundered Somnath temple
Modhera Sun temple
- Gujarat
- Bhima I of Chalukya dynasty
Virupaksha temple
- Hampi
- Dedicated to Lord Vishnu
- Vijayanagara style
Hoysaleshwara temple
- Karnataka
- Star-shaped design on a higher platform
Padmanabhaswamy temple
- Kerala
- Lord Vishnu
- Laksha Deepam festival once in every six years
Trimbakeshwar temple
- Maharashtra
- Lord Shiva
- Balaji Baji Rao
Konark Sun Temple, Odisha
-Sun god
-Also called as Black Pagoda
- King Narasimha Deva I
Thousand Pillar Temple
- Telangana
- Vishnu, Shiva and Surya
Ramappa Temple
- Telangana
- Kakatiya dynasty
- UNESCO World Heritage Site
Brihadisvara Temple
- Tamil Nadu
- Built by Raja Raja I
- Chola architecture
Dakshineswara temple
- West Bengal
- Goddess Kali
Raja Rani temple
- Odisha
- Temple with no presiding deity
- Erotic carvings
- Built in Odisha sub-style of Nagara
 Current Affairs 2022 (Architecture)
1. Ancient temple of Gupta discovered at Bilsarh, Uttar Pradesh. One of
the few structural temples belonging to the Gupta styles which is still
surviving
2. Konark Sun temple, Odisha and Chandrabagha beach
3. Reclining Buddha: Bihar
4. Lingaraja Temple: Odisha
5. Joykali temple: Bangladesh
6. Hagia Sophia: Turkey
 Previous Year Question papers
The Nagara, the Dravida, the Vesara are: [1995]
(a) The three main racial groups of the Indian subcontinent
(b) The three main linguistic divisions into which the languages of India can be classified
(c) The three main styles of Indian temple architecture
(d) The three main musical gharanas prevalent in India
Which one of the following monuments has a dome which is said to be one of the largest in the world?
[1995]
(a) Tomb of Sher Shah, Sasaram
(b) Jama Masjid, Delhi
(c) Tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, Delhi
(d) Gol Gumbaz, Bijapur
 Gol Gumbaz is the mausoleum of Muhammed Adil Shah, the
Bahamani Sultan of Bijapur during the 17th century, that was
constructed in 1656 by an architect named Yakut of Dabul.
 Unsupported by pillars it is one of the world’s largest and India’s
largest dome.
 It has seven-storeyed octagonal spires with heavy bracketed cornice
right below the parapet.
 The structure is also an acoustic wonder as the whispering gallery can
echo the faintest of whispers for a total of 11 times.
 It reflects the Deccan style of architecture.
Jama Masjid
• Built by Shah Jahan
• Architect: Ustad Khali
• Marble, sandstone and limestone

Tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, Delhi

• Indo-Islamic style
• Red sandstone with white marbles
• His family is also cremated with him
Which one of the following temples figured in the news regarding the institution of the Devadasis?
[1996]
(a) Jagannatha Temple, Puri
(b) Pasupatinath Temple, Kathmandu
(c) Kandariya Mahadev Temple, Khajuraho
(d) Chausath Yogini Temple, Bheraghat
Jagannatha Temple, Puri
 The Jagannath Temple is built in the Odisha sub-style of the Nagara style of temple architecture.
 It is one of the four Dhams (holiest pilgrimage centres) of Hinduism; the other three being Dwarika, Badrinath & Rameswar.
 It was constructed by a famous king of Ganga Dynasty Ananta Varman Chodaganga Deva dating back to 12th century.
 In general, here the shikhara, called deul in Odisha, is vertical almost until the top when it suddenly curves sharply inwards.
 Deuls are preceded, as usual, by mandapas called Jagamohan in Odisha.
 The exterior of the temples are lavishly carved, their interiors generally quite bare.
 Odisha temples usually have boundary walls.
Pasupatinath Temple, Kathmandu
 One of the most sacred Hindu temples of Nepal – Pashupatinath Temple is located on banks of Bagmati River on the eastern outskirts of Kathmandu.
Kandariya Mahadev Temple, Khajuraho
 The Khajuraho Group of Monuments is a group of Hindu temples and Jain temples in Chhatarpur district of Madhya Pradesh.
 They are a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 The temples are famous for their nagara-style architectural symbolism and their erotic sculptures.
 Most Khajuraho temples were built between 950 and 1050 by the Chandela dynasty.
Chausath Yogini Temple, Bheraghat
 The Chausath Yogini temple, also known as Ekattarso Mahadeva Temple, is a Shiva temple in Morena district, Madhya Pradesh.
 According to an inscription dated to 1323 CE (Vikram Samvat 1383), the temple was built by the Kachchhapaghata king Devapala (r. c. 1055 – 1075) in the 11th century.
 It is believed that the temple was the venue of providing education in astrology and mathematics based on the transit of the Sun.
 This circular temple is a yogini temple dedicated to sixty-four yoginis and one among the very few such temples in India.
 It is said that this temple was the inspiration behind the Sansad Bhawan.
 There is a Chausath Yogini Temple in the Khajuraho Complex as well.
 Predating the tenth century, this is a temple of small, square shrines of roughly-hewn granite blocks, each dedicated to devis or goddesses associated with the rise of
Tantric worship after the seventh century.
 Several such temples were dedicated to the cult of the yoginis across Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and even as far south as Tamil Nadu.
 They were built between the seventh and tenth centuries, but few have survived
•Consider the following: [1998]
1. Tughlaqabad
2. Lodi Garden
3. Qutub Minar
4. Fatehpur Sikri
•The correct chronological order in which they were built is:
(a) 3, 1, 4, 2
(b) 3, 1, 2, 4
(c) 1, 3, 2, 4
(d) 1, 3, 4, 2
•Tughlaqabad
 It was built by Ghiyasudddin Tughlaq, the first Sultan of the Tughlaq Dynasty in 1321.
 In spite of its grandeur and greatness, it was abandoned not long after it was completed.
 It is believed that soon after its construction, Ghiyasuddin died in an accident due to the curse of Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya who had been angered by
the Sultan.
•Lodi Garden
 It is a city park situated in New Delhi, India.
 Spread over 90 acres (360,000 m2) and contains, Mohammed Shah's Tomb, Tomb of Sikandar Lodi, Shisha Gumbad and Bara Gumbad, architectural
works of the 15th century by Lodis, the last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.
 Shish and Bara Gumbad are square tombs with imposing dome, turrets on corners and facades giving false impression of being double storeyed.
 The garden blends the ancient past with the more recent colonial present.
 Joseph Stein's monument in glass stands next to Islamic domes, tombs and arches in shades of blue and brown of Delhi qaurtize.
•Qutub Minar
 Qutab-ud-din Aibak, the first Muslim ruler of Delhi, commenced the construction of the Qutab Minar in 1193 AD, but could only finish the basement.
 His successor, Iltutmish, added three more storeys, and in 1368, Firoz Shah Tughlak constructed the fifth and the last storey.
 The surrounding archaeological area contains funerary buildings, notably the magnificent Alai-Darwaza Gate, the masterpiece of Indo-Muslim art (built in
1311), and two mosques, including the Quwwatu'l-Islam, the oldest in northern India, built of materials reused from some 20 Hindu temples.
•Fatehpur Sikri
 Built during the second half of the 16th century by the Emperor Akbar, Fatehpur Sikri (the City of Victory) was the capital of the Mughal Empire for only
some 10 years.
 The complex of monuments and temples, all in a uniform architectural style, includes one of the largest mosques in India, the Jama Masjid.
•Consider the following statements: [1999]
•The striking feature of the Jama Masjid in Kashmir completed by Zain-ul-Abidin include(s):
1. Turret
2. Similarity with Buddhist pagodas
3. Persian style
•Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 alone
(b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 3
 The Jama Masjid was built in 1400 A.D. during the reign of Sultan Sikandar in Kashmir.
 It is located at the heart of old city Nowhatta, Srinagar.
 This Indo-Islamic architecture is designed with 370 wooden pillars and a splendid courtyard.
 Jamia Masjid in Jammu and Kashmir is a place where a number of Muslims within the country and across
the globe visit often and offer prayers.
 They generally recite holy quotes from Islamic scripts/Quran at Jamia Masjid Mosque.
Hoysala monuments are found in: [2001]
(a) Hampi and Hospet
(b) Halebid and Belur
(c) Mysore and Bangalore
(d) Sringeri and Dharwar
 The Hoysala dynasty constructed temples at Belur, Halebid (formerly Dwarasamudram) and Somanathapura in
Hassan district of Karnataka between the 11th and 14th centuries.
 One of the most famous temples in this group is the Chennakeshava Temple (also called Vijaya Narayana
Temple) in Belur, which was commissioned by Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana to commemorate his victory over
the Cholas in 1116 AD.
 It is dedicated to Lord Vishnu.
 The temple is believed to have been built by master craftsmen – Dasoja and Chavana, a father and son duo.
 Halebid or Halebeedu (meaning “old house”) was the old capital of the Hoysalas and has numerous spectacular
Hindu and Jain temples.
 In the 14th century, the armies of Alauddin Khilji and Muhammad Tughlak defeated the Hoysalas and raided
their empire.
 It is said Halebid never recovered from this attack and fell into neglect.
 The Keshava Temple at Somanathapura is attributed to the prolific Hoysala artisan Mallitamma who is also
famous for carving the ceilings of the Amriteshwara Temple at Tarikere, near Shivamogga.
 The ‘Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysala’ have been finalized as India’s nomination for World Heritage List for
the year 2022-2023
 They have been on UNESCO’s Tentative list since April 15, 2014.
 Some Hoysala monuments are also found in Bellavadi, Chikmaguluru and even Mysore and Bangalore.
In which of the following cities is the Lingaraja Temple located? [2001]
(a) Bhubaneswar
(b) Bijapur
(c) Kolkata
(d) Shravanabelagola
 Dedicated to Lord Shiva, the Lingaraja Temple in
Bhubaneswar was built by King Jajati Keshari in
the 10th Century and completed by King
Lalatendu Keshari in the 11th Century.
 The walled campus has about 50 smaller shrines,
including one dedicated to Goddess Parvati.
 It is the biggest temple in Bhubaneswar and
represents the quintessence of the Kalinga type
of architecture, the culminating result of the
architectural activities at Bhubaneswar.
•Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below the lists:
• [2006]
• List I List II
A. Sisupalgarh 1. Assam
B. Piprahwa 2. Manipur
C. Goalpara 3. Odisha
D. Bishnupur 4. Uttar Pradesh
•  
• A B C D
(a) 2 4 1 3
(b) 2 1 4 3
(c) 3 4 1 2
(d) 3 1 4 2
Which of the following is correctly matched? [2006]
(a) Vikramshila Monastery: Uttar Pradesh
(b) Hemkund Gurudwara: Himachal Pradesh
(c) Udaygiri Caves: Maharashtra
(d) Amravati Buddhist Stupa: Andhra Pradesh
•Vikramshila University
 Situated at Antichak in Kahalgaon sub-division, 38 KM from Bhagalpur, ancient Vikramshila University was famous as a Centre of learning during the Pala
dynasty.
 The university was established by the King Dharmpala, the second ruler of the Pala Dynasty which ruled over present day Bengal and Bihar during the 8th-12th
centuries AD.
•Hemkund Gurudwara
 Gurudwara Shri Hemkund Sahib Ji, is situated at an altitude of around 4,329 m, on the bank of the pristine Hemkund (Lokpal) lake at the base of the Saptshringi
glacier in Uttarakhand.
 One of the most revered Sikh shrines, Hemkund Sahib draws thousands of pilgrims every year.
 It is recorded in the holy Granth Sahib that the tenth guru of Sikhs, Guru Govind Singh, mediated by the serene banks of Hemkund lake in one of his earlier
births.
 It is said Lakshmana, younger brother of Lord Rama from the epic Ramayana, regained his health by meditating on the banks of Hemkund after the severe
injuries he received in the war and the Lakshmana temple is said to have been built at the place where Lakshmana meditated.
•Udaygiri Caves
 They are 20 rock-cut caves from the Gupta period (4th-6th centuries AD) in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh.
 This site has iconography related to Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism (Durga), as well as important inscriptions from the Gupta period.
 Of all the caves, cave number 5 is the most famous with its colossal and iconic Varaha sculpture which represents the story of Vishnu’s (in boar or Varaha
incarnation) rescue of Bhudevi (Earth) who had been attacked and kidnapped by Hiranayaksha, a demon.
•Amravati Stupa
 The Amaravati Mahachaitya is one of the most prominent sites of Buddhist pilgrimage in south India.
 The structure is reminiscent of the gompas in the Himalayas.
 Locally, the mahachaitya is known as Dipaladinne (meaning hill of lights).
 Buddha is depicted in the dhyana position and the statue rests eight pillars, representing the Eightfold Path of Buddhism.
 Amaravati's recorded history can be dated back to the time of Mauryan emperor Asoka whose thirteenth rock edict mentions Andhra and hints at this
particular mahachaitya's existence.
•Which one of the following is not correctly matched? [2006]
• Monastery State
(a) Dhankar Himachal Pradesh
(b) Rumtek Sikkim
(c) Tabo Himachal Pradesh
(d) Kye Arunachal Pradesh
•The initial design and construction of which massive temple took place during the reign of Suryavarman II?
[2006]
(a) Sri Mariamman Temple
(b) Angkor Vat
(c) Batu Caves Temple
(d) Kamakhya Temple
•Sri Mariamman Temple
 Sri Mariamman Temple is the oldest Hindu temple in Singapore.
 Built in 1827, Mariamman Kovil or Kling Street Temple as it was popularly known then was constructed for worship by immigrants from
the Nagapatnam and Cuddalore districts of South India.
 The temple is dedicated to Goddess Mariamman, known for her power in curing epidemic illnesses and diseases.
•Angkor Vat
 Angkor Vat is a temple in Angkor at the heart of Cambodia that was built in the 12th century by King Suryavarman II (reigned 1113–c.
1150).
 It is the world’s largest religious structure, covering some 400 acres.
 It marks the high point of Khmer architecture.
 Numerous other Buddhist shrines were constructed in Angkor city over the centuries of which Angkor Vat remains the most renowned.
•Batu Caves Temple
 The Batu Caves Temple in Malaysia stands out as a monumental focal point of the significant contribution made by the Indian settlers in
the development of Malaysia.
 The 113-year-old main temple, dedicated to Lord Subramaniar (Karttikeya), is lodged in a cave about 400 feet above ground level.
•Kamakhya Temple
 Dedicated to Maa Kamakhya or Kameswari, the Goddess of Desire, this temple is situated on the Nilachala Hill, west of Guwahati,
Assam.
 is considered most sacred and oldest of the 51 Shakti Peethas.
 It is the centrepiece of widely practiced, powerful Tantrik Shaktism cult in India.
 The Ambubachi Mela is an important cultural festival of this temple.
Where is the famous Vijaya Vitthala Temple having 56 carved pillars emitting musical notes located?
[2007]
(a) Belur
(b) Bhadrachalam
(c) Hampi
(d) Srirangam
 As the epicenter of Hampi's attractions, the Vijaya Vittala Temple is the most extravagant architectural
showpiece of Hampi.
 The temple is built in the form of a sprawling campus with compound wall and gateway towers (gopurams).
 There are many halls (mandapas), pavilions and temples located inside this campus.
 Vittala, after whom the temple is known, is a form of Lord Vishnu.
 The temple was originally built in the 15th century AD but many successive kings have enhanced the temple
campus during their regimes to the present form.
 The stone chariot located inside the campus is almost an iconic structure of Hampi.
 The main highlight of the Maha-Mantapa is its richly carved giant monolithic pillars.
 The outermost of the pillars are popularly called the musical pillars as they emit musical tones when
tapped.
Where is the famous Virupaksha Temple located? [2009]
(a) Bhadrachalam
(b) Chidambaram
(c) Hampi
(d) Srikalahasti
 Believed to functioning uninterruptedly ever since its
inception in the 7th century AD, Virupaksha temple is
the oldest and the principal temple in Hampi.
 It is located on the south bank of the river Tungabadra.
 It is famous for the hundred-pillared hall and the triple
headed Nandi (bull statue).
 The sanctum contains the idol of lord Virupaksha in
the form of a Linga (A phallus image).
 The most important of the sub shrines are that of
Goddess Pampa and Bhuvaneswari, consorts of lord
Shiva.
Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below the lists.
[2009]
List I (Famous Temple) List II (State)
A. Vidyashankara Temple Andhra Pradesh
B. Rajarani Temple Karnataka
C. Kandariya Temple Madhya Pradesh
D. Bhimesvara Temple Odisha

A B C D
(a) 2 4 3 1
(b) 2 3 4 1
(c) 1 4 3 2
(d) 1 3 4 2
•Vidyashankara Temple
 The Vidyashankara Temple in Shringeri, Karnataka was built in the year 1338 A.D.
 It is a unique monument built entirely of stone combining both Hoysala (Chalukya) and Dravidian architectural styles.
 On the western side is the Garbhagriha, with Vidya Ganapati on one side and Durga on the other side of the entrance.
 On the other three sides of the Garbhagriha are shrines of Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshwara with their consorts.
 In the eastern half of the structure is a mandapa with twelve pillars, huge monoliths carrying large figures and carrying heavy projecting
corbels on top.
 These twelve pillars are marked by the twelve signs of the zodiac in their regular order.
 The central ceiling is an exquisite piece of workmanship with lotus and pecking parrots.
 Vidyatirtha Rathotsava is celebrated on a grand scale during kartika Shukla paksha.
•Rajarani Temple
 The Rajarani temple in Bhubaneswar (A.D. 1000-1022) is a marvel of Odia architecture.
 According to some historians, it was called Indresvara or Indralingesvara after its builder, lndraratha, an illustrious Somavamsi ruler.
 Presently, this temple is without a presiding deity, and it is well-known as a temple without a deity.
 The temple’s vimana is in the Rekhaprasad style, clustered with miniature Sikharas and the Jagamohana (mandapa) is a pyramidal-
shaped Pidhadeula.
 The temple has the pancharatha plan.
•Bhimesvara Temple
 Situated in Samalkot, Andhra Pradesh the Bhimesvara Temple’s construction started in the late 9th century during Chalukyan era.
 Installed in the shrine, the Linga limestone is 16 feet tall, rising from the ground floor pedestal and entering the second floor by
entering the roof where the Rudrabhaga is adorned.
 The Samalkot Bhimeswara temple is backed by a mandapam of 100 pillars and is of excellent architectural significance.
 The temple has an Ekasila Nandi (a monolithic bull) at the temple door protecting the Shiva Lingam.
With reference to the history of Indian rock-cut architecture, consider the following statements:
[2013]
1. The caves at Badami are the oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India.
2. The Barabar rock-cut caves were originally made for Ajivikas by Emperor Chandragupta Maurya.
3. At Ellora, caves were made for different faiths.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1,2 and 3
•Consider the following historical places: [2013]
1. Ajanta Caves
2. Lepakshi Temple
3. Sanchi Stupa
•Which of the above places is/are also known for mural paintings?
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 1,2 and 3
(d) None
•Ajanta Caves
 The 29 caves of Ajanta are carved out of a cliff above the left bank of the river Waghora in the Ajanta hill range
of the Western Ghats in Aurangabad district, Maharashtra.
 All the caves are Buddhist dating between the 1st century BC to the 5th century AD of which four are chaityas
while the rest are viharas.
 Ajanta is the only surviving example of painting of the first century BCE and the fifth century CE.
 The themes of the paintings are the events from the life of the Buddha, the Jatakas and the Avadanas.
 The images of Bodhisattvas Padmapani and Vajrapani are very common.
 The influence of Vengi and Vidarbha sculptural traditions are seen in some caves.
•Lepakshi Temple
 Lepakshi is a village in the Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh is famous for its three shrines, which are
dedicated to Lord Vishnu, Lord Shiva and Lord Veerabhadra.
 The Veerabhadra Temple was constructed by two brothers, Viranna and Virupanna.
 The temple is built in the Vijayanagar architectural style and has beautiful sculptures adorning the walls.
 There is a huge Nandi bull made from a single granite stone.
 Lepakshi has many murals from the Vijayanagar Era and the famous sculpture of the snake on the Nagalinga.
Some Buddhist rock-cut caves are called Chaityas, while the others are called Viharas. What is the difference
between the two?
(a) Vihara is a place of worship, while Chaitya is the dwelling place of the monks.
(b) Chaitya is a place of worship, while Vihara is the dwelling place of monks.
(c) Chaitya is the stupa at the far end of the cave, while Vihara is the hall axial to it.
(d) There is no material difference between the two.
Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri was [2014]
(a) The mosque for the use of the royal family
(b) Akbar’s private prayer chamber
(c) The hall in which Akbar held discussions with scholars of various religions
(d) The room in which the nobles belonging to different religions gathered to discuss religious affairs
•With reference to the cultural history of India, the term ‘Panchayatan’ refers to: [2014]
(a) An assembly of village elders
(b) A religious sect
(c) A style of temple architecture
(d) An administrative functionary
•With reference to the art and archaeological history of India, which one among the following was made
earliest? [2015]
(a) Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneswar
(b) Rock-cut Elephant at Dhauli
(c) Rock-cut Monuments at Mahabalipuram
(d) Varaha Image at Udaygiri
•What is/are common to the two historical places known as Ajanta and Mahabalipuram?
• [2016]
1. Both were built in the same period.
2. Both belong to the same religious denomination.
3. Both have rock-cut monuments.
•Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) None of the statements given above is correct
Which of the following is/are famous for Sun temples? [2017]
1. Arasavalli
2. Amarkantak
3. Omkareshwar
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
With reference to the cultural history of India, consider the following statements: [2018]
1. White marble was used in making Buland Darwaza and Khankah at Fatehpur Sikri.
2. Red sandstone and marble were used in making Bara Imambara and Rumi Darwaza at Lucknow.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
•Building ‘Kalyana Mandapas’ was a notable feature in the temple construction in the kingdom of:
[2019]
(a) Chalukya
(b) Chandela
(c) Rashtrakuta
(d) Vijayanagara
•With reference to Chausath Yogini Temple situated near Morena, consider the following statements:
[2021]
1. It is a circular temple built during the reign of Kachchhapaghata Dynasty.
2. It is the only circular temple built in India.
3. It was meant to promote the Vaishnava cult in the region.
4. Its design has given rise to a popular belief that it was the inspiration behind the Indian Parliament building.  

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 4
(d) 2, 3 and 4
•Which one of the following statements is correct? [2021]
(a) Ajanta Caves lie in the gorge of the Waghora river.
(b) Sanchi Stupa lies in the gorge of the Chambal river.
(c) Pandu – lena cave shrines lie in the gorge of the Narmada river.
(d) Amaravati Stupa lies in the gorge of the Godavari river.