Regulation:

Chemical and Nervous

 So Far…
• Nutrition
• Transport-Blood and Immunity
• Respiration
• Excretion
• Support and Locomotion

How do we coordinate all these activities?

How do we maintain Homeostasis?
• Regulation
– Chemical
• Hormones and Glands of Endocrine System
• Slow-Snail Mail (travel via blood long distance)
• Long-lasting effects and hormones can remain active in
blood from minutes to days
– Nervous
• Neurons and Neurotransmitters of Nervous System
• Fast-E-mail (travel through wires 100m/s)
• Short-lived effects
 Endocrine System
• Glands
– Organs that secrete
Gland
chemicals
– Glands of the
Endocrine System are
Ductless
• Secretion goes right
into blood stream
• Blood brings it to target
Blood Vessels
 Other types of Glands
• Exocrine Glands
– Secretions delivered to target through ducts
Gland that is Endocrine and
Exocrine:

Pancreas
Makes
Digestive Enzymes
And
Hormones
 Hormones
• Secreted by Endocrine Glands
• Chemicals
• Travel via blood to target
• Regulate processes at target
 How do Hormones act on target?
• One Messenger Model:
– Hormone crosses target cell membrane
– Binds cytoplasmic receptor protein
– Hormone-Receptor Complex interacts with
DNA
– Effect produced
– Ex. Steroids (Lipid-like)
Steroid Model
 How do Hormones act on target?
• 2 Messenger Model:
– Hormone binds receptor on membrane
– Binding activates a second chemical in
cytoplasm (ex. cAMP, cGMP, Calcium)
– 2nd Chemical leads to cell response
– Protein Hormones
2 Messenger Model
nd
 The Glands
1. Pituitary Gland
• In Head
• “Master Gland”
• Two Sections
(Anterior and
Posterior)
• Regulated by the
Hypothalamus (Part
of Brain)
 Pituitary Gland

Releasing Factors

Stores &
Makes & Secretes
Secretes
Hormone Neuropeptides
of
Hypothalamus
 Hormones of Anterior Pituitary
Hormone Target Response
TSH Thyroid Thyroxin Release
ACTH Adrenals Hormone Release
GH Many cells Bone Growth
FSH Ovary Follicle Growth
LH Ovary egg release
Prolactin Mammary Milk Production
Glands
Hormones of Posterior Pituitary
Neuropeptide Target Response
Oxytocin Uterus
Contractions
Vasopressin (ADH) Kidney More H20

Reabsorption
 The Glands
2. Thyroid Gland
– In neck
 Hormones of Thyroid
• Thyroxine (T3,T4)
– Has iodine
– Regulates protein, carb and fat metabolism
– Regulates cellular respiration
• Calcitonin
– Regulates blood calcium levels
– Lowers blood calcium levels
 The Glands
3. Parathyroid Glands
– Four glands embedded in thyroid gland
 Hormone of Parathyroid Gland
• Parathormone
– Regulates Calcium and Phosphate
metabolism
– Increases blood calcium levels by taking
Calcium out of bone
 The Glands
4. The Adrenal Glands
– On surface of kidneys
– Has two layers (inner medulla and outer cortex)
 Hormones of Adrenal Medulla
• Epinephrine (Adrenalin) and “Fight or
Flight Response”
– Nervous System regulation
– Increase: Heartbeat, blood pressure,
respiration, clotting rate, glucose levels
• Norepinephrine
– Released in response to low blood pressure,
causes for an increase.
 Hormones of Adrenal Cortex
Corticosteroids:
• Cortisol (Glucocorticoid)
– Affects carb, protein and fat metabolism
• Aldosterone (Mineraolcorticoid)
– Affects Sodium and Potassium levels at
kidney level
 The Glands
5. Pancreas
– Islets of Langerhan cells:
• Alpha cells= secrete the hormone Glucagon
• Beta cells=secrete the hormone Insulin
 Hormones of Pancreas
• Glucagon
– raises blood glucose levels
• (Glycogen to glucose)
• Insulin
– Lowers blood glucose levels
• (Glucose to Glycogen)
 The Glands
6. Gonads:
• Ovaries
– Located in female
abdominal cavity
• Testes
– Located in male
scrotum
 Hormones of Ovaries
• Estrogen
– Stimulates female reproductive system
– Female secondary sexual characteristics
– Regulates menstrual cycle
• Progesterone
– Regulates menstrual cycle
 Hormones of Testes
• Testosterone (an Androgen)
– Stimulates male reproductive system
development
– Male secondary sexual characteristics
 The Glands
7. Thymus
• In upper chest
• More important in
early years than
adulthood
 Hormones of Thymus
• Thymosin
– Stimulate T cell development
 The Glands
8. Pineal Gland
– At base of brain
 Hormone of the Pineal Gland
• Melatonin
– Involved in daily rhythms and biological clock
– Much still unknown
 Digestive System Hormones
• Gastrin from Stomach
• Secretin, CCK, GIP from Small Intestine
 “Local Hormones”
• Prostaglandins
– Don’t travel far from production site (unlike
other hormones)
– Wide range of functions
 Problems
• Diabetes:
– Excess glucose in blood
– Low Insulin (Hyposecretion) or too much
glucagon (Hypersecretion)
– Type 1= don’t make insulin (autoimmune against beta
cells)
– Type 2= Diet related sugar management problem,
liver doesn’t respond to insulin)
– Gestational= Pregnancy related
• Hypoglycemia
– Too low blood glucose
– Too high insulin or too low glucagon
 Problems
• Giantism
– In kids
– Normal proportions
– Too much GH
• Acromegaly
– In adults
– Too much GH
– Large body parts
• Dwarfism
– In kids
– Small but proportional body
– Low GH
 Problems
• Hyperthyroidism
– Too much thyroxine
– Hyper, eye bulging , may include Goiter
condition
 Problems
• Cushing’s Disease
– Hypersecretion of
Aldosterone and
Cortisol
– Fat deposits
– High blood glucose
• Addison’s
Problems
Disease
– Low amount of
aldosterone
and cortisol
– Glucose
metabolism
problems
– Sluggish,
weak, weight
loss
– Increased skin
pigmentation
 Problems
• Hypothyroidism
– In infant: becomes
dwarf with
disproportionate body
and mental retardation
(cretinism)
– In adult: sluggish,
heavy person
How are hormone levels normally
regulated?
 Homeostatic Feedback Regulation
1) Baby Suckling nerves signal Hypothalamus to
release Oxytocin Breast Milk
2) Temp. drop nerves signal Hypothalamus to
release TSH-releasing factor TSH release
from Pituitary Thyroid Gland release Thyroxin
3) Hot nerves signal Hypothalamus to release
ADH kidney releases less urine
 Negative Homeostatic
Feedback
• Too much Thyroid
hormones in blood
• Shut down anterior
pituitary and
hypothalamus
related to Thyroid
hormones
 Nervous Regulation
• Like E-mail
• Fast but short-lived response
 Basic Unit of Nervous Regulation

• Neuron (They don’t divide!)

 Parts of Neuron
• Dendrite
– Branched
– Short
– Receives signals
– Sends signals towards axon
 Parts of Neurons
• Cell Body (Cyton)
– Contains organelles of neuron
– Does metabolic activities
 Parts of Neuron
• Axon
– Long
– Single fiber 1cm to 1 meter in length
– Carries electrical signals towards terminal
branches
– Can be wrapped with 2 types of glial cells
• Schwann Cells that may produce Myelin (Fatty
insulating material) on axons, PNS
• Oligodendrocytes, CNS
– Myelination progresses as we grow into adult
Spots of exposed axon
between Schwann
Cells=Nodes of
Ranvier
 Parts of Neuron
• Terminal Branches
– Sends electrical
signals towards
synaptic knobs
(terminal knobs)
 Parts of Neuron
• Synaptic Knobs
– Electrical signal
causes release of
neurotransmitter
(chemical) from
vesicles
•Neurotransmitters cross Synapse (Space)
•Bind to receptors on dendrites of other neurons or receptors on muscles
 Types of Neurons
• Sensory
– Send messages from receptors to brain and spinal
cord
• Receptors: ex. Eye, Ear, Skin
• Interneurons (associative neurons)
– Relays messages from one neuron to another
– Usually short
• Motor Neuron
– Send messages from brain and spinal cord to
Effectors
• Effectors: ex. Muscles and Glands
 Neurons vs. Nerves
• Nerves=bundles of
neurons
 The Message=Impulse
• A neuron at rest:
– Outside neuron positively charged
– Inside neuron negatively charged (-70mV)
– Membrane is “Polarized”
Cell at Rest
Negative Chlorine also outside
 What starts an Impulse?
• Stimulus
– Ex. Light, heat, sound, pain
An impulse will lead to a
“Response”
What happens during an impulse?
• Wave of depolarization and repolarization
along neuron=Action Potential
How do we get the depolarization?
Action Potential

At Rest (Polarized)
Need to reach “Threshold” to open
enough Na gates to start impulse
(All or none Response)
Na Gates Open-Positive Na rushes in,
Positive K stays in (Depolarization),
More positive entering than leaving

Na gates close, K gates open,

more positive leaving than
coming in (Repolarization)
Undershoot Resting Potential, Very
negative inside, REFRACTORY
PERIOD-Unresponsive
Wave travels along membrane

Gates are voltage regulated

Na rushing through one gate will move towards the right and
open downstream gates
 What regulates the speed of the
wave?
• Size of neuron
• Myelin presence
A large myelinated neuron impulse speed=
100 meters/sec
 Why so fast?
• Saltatory Conduction:

Skipping is faster than walking!

 What happens when impulse
reaches the knobs?
• Signal must cross Synapse!
• Change electrical signal to a
chemical signal
• Neurotransmitter
• Diffuse across synapse
• Bind receptor on next
dendrite-cause the
generation of action
potential
• Enzymes breakdown
transmitters
 Neurotransmitters
• Acetylcholine
• Norepinephrine
• Serotonin
• Glutamic Acid (MSG in foods)
 Strength of Stimulus?
• Relate to frequency of action potentials
• Different neurons have different thresholds
Why can’t we smell through our
ears?
 How is a response produced?
• Neuromuscular Junctions
• Neurons end with Motor End Plates
• Neurotransmitters like acetylcholine bind
to muscle cells
• Muscle contracts
 Drugs and Poisons
Interfere with Neuromuscular Junctions
• Nerve Gas
• Curare
• Botulin toxin
• Insecticides
Interfere with synaptic transmission
• Uppers and Downers
• Caffeine
 Nervous Regulation in Protists
• No Neurons
• No Nervous System
• Can respond to stimuli like chemicals,
light, obstacles
• They have “irritability”=Whole organism
response to stimuli
 Nervous Regulation in Hydra
• Neurons
• No Brain
• 2 way transmission
along neuron, not 1
way
• Nerve net
• Whole body
responses to stimuli
 Nervous Regulation in Worm
• Has Central Nervous System
– “Brain”-fused ganglia
– 2 Nerve cords
• Has Peripheral Nervous System
– Branching sensory, motor and associative
nerves off of CNS
• One way transmission
Two, ventral nerve cords
Periodically there are bulges of
cell called ganglia that relay info
Peripheral nerves branch off of
nerve cord
 Nervous Regulation in
Grasshopper
• Central and Peripheral Nervous System
• Sensory Receptors like antennae, eyes,
tympana
• Brain
• 2 ventral nerve cords that have ganglia
Nervous Regulation in Humans
• Central Nervous System
– Brain
– Dorsal Spinal nerve cord
• Peripheral Nervous System
– Nerves to and from receptors and effectors
 Brain
• Protected by cranium
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code-cracking machine.
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 Brain
• Covered by Meninges Membranes
• Bathed in Cerebrospinal Fluid
 Parts of Brain
• Cerebrum
• Cerebellum
• Medulla Oblongata
• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus
• Pons
 Parts of Brain

• Cerebrum
– Largest part
– Divided down the middle
into the right and left
cerebral hemispheres
• Rt Art/Music
• Lt Math/Analytical
– The nerves that cross the
hemispheres are the
“corpus callosum”
 Brain
• Cerebrum
– Outer Gray Matter ( Cerebral Cortex)
• motor neuron cytons and
interneurons
• Many unmyelinated cells
• Processing area of brain
• Sensory, motor and associative
functions
– Speech, thought, hearing,
vision, voluntary body
movements, memory, smell
• Many folds=increase surface area
– Inner White Matter region
• Mostly region of myelinated
axons
• Communication of data
between sides of cortex
• Communication from cortex
region and rest of body
• Crossed “wires”:Lt side of
brain controls Rt side of
body and vise versa
Compartmentalization
 Memory
Stored in Hippocampus Region
Tiered circuits of impulses
• Momentary
– Lasts minutes
• Short-term
– Lasts several hours
• Long-term
– Lasts years
– Stored in Cortex
Why do casinos stay open all night
and have no clocks?
 Naps boost memory
(J. Sleep Research)
• As much as a 6 min.
nap improves recall
– Brain extracts the gist
of learned info
– Brain files info and
combines info with
previously learned info
– Brain adds meaning to
info learned
 Brain
• Cerebellum
– Outside has gray matter
– Inside has white matter
– Coordinates movements
 Brain
• Medulla Oblongata
– Lowest brain part
– Outside is white matter
– Inside is gray
– Controls involuntary activities
 Brain
• Thalamus
– Relay center
– pain
• Hypothalamus
– Controls body temperature, blood pressure,
sleep, emotions
– Regulates pituitary gland
• Pons
– Relay center
Brain Waves

EEG
 Behaviors
• Reflex
– No thought
– Response is inborn
– Unlearned
– Protection or survival-related
 Behaviors
• Instinct
– Inborn
– Unlearned
– Sequence of reflexes with each one triggering
the next reflex
 Behaviors
• Conditioned Reflex
– Learned behavior together with a reflex
 Behaviors
• Conditioned Response
– Associate one stimulus with another

Child will
associate fear
with mice
 Behaviors
• Habit
– Behavior requiring no thought
– Performed quickly
– Not inborn
– Desire, Repetition and Satisfaction
 Behaviors
• Imprinting
– Behavior patterns developed soon after birth
– learned from what ever it thinks to be its
parent
 Spinal Cord
• Extends from medulla down through the
vertebral column
 Spinal Cord
• Protected by vertebral
column
 Spinal Cord
• Covered by the menenges and CSF
• Outer White Matter
• Inner Gray Matter
• Connects Peripheral Nerve with Brain
• Controls Reflexes
Simple Reflex Arc
 Peripheral Nervous System
• Nerves not of brain and spinal cord
– 31 pairs of spinal nerves
– 12 pairs of cranial nerves serving eyes,
ears, nose, mouth…
Two Divisions of Peripheral Nervous System
1. Somatic Nervous System
2. Autonomic Nervous System
 Somatic Nervous System
• Sensory and Motor Neurons dealing with
activities that are voluntary (ex. Pick up a
book)
 Autonomic Nervous System
• Nerves that facilitate events that are not
under voluntary control (ex. Gland
contraction)
Two Divisions of Autonomic System
1. Parasympathetic Nervous System
2. Sympathetic Nervous System
 Parasympathetic System
Causes impulses for:
– Slow heartbeat
– Increase peristalsis of digestion
– Dilate blood vessels
– Constrict urinary bladder
– Constrict bronchi
– Pupil constricted
 Sympathetic Nervous System
Causes impulses for:
– Speed up heart rate
– Slow digestion peristalsis
– Constricts blood vessels
– Relax bladder
– Widen bronchi
– Dilate pupils
 Problems
• Multiple Sclerosis
• Schizophrenia
• Dyslexia
• Autism
• ADHD
• Paralysis
• Bipolar Syndrome
• Alzheimer's Disease
• Cerebral Palsy
• Parkinson's Disease
• Headaches
• Muscular Dystrophy
• Encephalitis, Meningitis
• Stroke / "Brain Attack"
• Epilepsy and Seizures
• Brain Tumors
• Polio
• Addiction/Anxiety/Depression
• Pinched nerves
Headaches
 Receptor Organs
• Eye
• Ear
• Tongue
• Nose
• Skin
Eye
Eye
 Sclera
• Outer layer
• White of eye
• Provide shape and
protection
 Cornea
• Front of sclera
• Bulges outward
• Thin
• Transparent
• Light enters
• Provides focus
 Choroid Coat
• Beneath Sclera layer
• Blood Vessels
• Stops reflection inside
eye
 Iris
• Front of Choroid coat
• Colored
• Controls amount of
light entering eye like
camera shutter
• Muscle controlled
• Autonomic control
 Pupil
• Hole at center of iris
• Light enters
 Lens
• Behind iris
• Focuses light on retina
• Muscles change shape of lens
 Retina
• Inner layer
• Image screening
• Light receptors
• No receptors where
optic nerve exits
eye=“blind spot”
 Retina
• Vision:
– Rod cells=black and white, low light vision
– Cone cells (Red, Green, Blue)=color vision
– Cells have Retinal Pigment (Need Vit. A)
– Send info out through optic nerve
 Cavities of Eye
• Fluid-filled
– Aqueous Humor
• Between cornea and
lens
– Vitreous humor
• Jelly
• Provides shape
• Behind lens
 Ear
• Outer Ear
– Pinna
• Funnel sound
– Auditory Canal
• wax
 Ear
• Middle Ear
– Tympanic membrane
– Hammer
– Anvil
– Stirrup
– Oval Window
Membrane
– Eustachian Tube
 Ear
• Inner Ear
– Cochlea
• hearing
– Semicircular canals
• Balance
– Auditory Nerve
 Skin
• Touch receptors
• Pressure Receptors
• Pain Receptors
• Temperature Receptors
 Tongue
• Taste Receptor
– “Taste bud”
– Substance needs to
be in solution to taste
– Much of flavor comes
from smell
 Tongue
• Tastes and receptor Old Model!

localization (old view)

• Evidence shows taste
receptors detect all
flavors
• More sugar binding,
more impulses to
brain
• Olfactory cells
Nose
• Adaptation
 Problems
• Eye
– Farsightedness=Can’t see near (Hyperopia)
• Eyeball too short
 Problems
• Eye
– Nearsightedness=Can’t see far (Myopia)
– Eyeball too long
 Problems
• Eye
– Astigmatism=Misshaped cornea
• Focus problem
 Problems
• Glaucoma
– Increased eye
pressure
– Damage to optic nerve

Glaucoma Vision
 Problems
• Cataracts
– Lens turns cloudy

Cataract Vision
 Problem
• Colorblindness
– Problem with cones
Stare at center dot for 20sec