Meaning of Reformation

• The Reformation (alternatively named the Protestant

Reformation or the European Reformation)was a major
movement within Western Christianity in 16th-century
Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to
the Catholic Church and in particular to papal
authority, arising from what were perceived to be
errors, abuses, and discrepancies by the Catholic
Church. The Reformation was the start of
Protestantism and the split of the Western Church into
Protestantism and what is now the Roman Catholic
Church. It is also considered one of the events that
signify the end of the Middle Ages and beginning of the
early modern period in Europe.
Meaning of Counter
Reformation
• The Counter-Reformation (Latin: Contrareformatio), also called
the Catholic Reformation (Latin: Reformatio Catholica) or the
Catholic Revival,was the period of Catholic resurgence that
was initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation, also
known as the Protestant Revolution. It began with the Council of
Trent (1545–1563) and largely ended with the conclusion of
the European wars of religion in 1648.Initiated to address the
effects of the Protestant Reformation, the Counter-Reformation
was a comprehensive effort composed of apologetic and
polemical documents and ecclesiastical configuration as decreed
by the Council of Trent.
• The last of these included the efforts of Imperial Diets of the Holy
Roman Empire, heresy trials and the Inquisition, anti-corruption
efforts, spiritual movements, and the founding of new
religious orders. Such policies had long-lasting effects in
European history with exiles of Protestants continuing until the
1781 Patent of Toleration, although smaller expulsions took place
in the 19th century.
Various Counter-Reformation theologians focused
only on defending doctrinal positions such as
the sacraments and pious practices that were
attacked by the Protestant reformers,up to the
Second Vatican Council in 1962–1965. 
Roman Catholicism
• Roman Catholic is a term sometimes used to
differentiate members of the Catholic Church in
full communion with the pope in Rome from other
Christians who also self-identify as "Catholic". It
is also sometimes used to differentiate adherents to
the Latin Church and its Roman rite from
other Catholics, i.e. adherents of the Eastern Catholic
Churches of various Eastern rites. It is not the official
name preferred by the Holy See or bishops in full
communion with the pope as a designation for their
faith OR INITUTION. 
• Roman Catholic is a term sometimes used to differentiate members of the Catholic
Church in full communion with the pope in Rome from other Christians who also self-
identify as "Catholic". It is also sometimes used to differentiate adherents to the Latin
Church and its Roman rite from other Catholics, i.e. adherents of the Eastern
Catholic Churches of various Eastern rites. It is not the official name preferred by the
Holy See or bishops in full communion with the pope as a designation for their faith or
institution.
• "Catholic" is one of the Four Marks of the Church set out in the Nicene Creed, a
statement of belief widely accepted across Christian denominations. Catholics, Eastern
Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox consider the term to refer to a single institutional
one true church, while Protestant ecclesiology considers it to refer to a church
invisible referred to as the Christian Church.Following the pejorative term "papist",
attested in English since 1534,the terms "Popish Catholic" and "Romish Catholic" came
into use during the Protestant Reformation. From the 17th century, "Roman Catholic
Church" has been used as a synonym for the Catholic Church by some Anglicans
and other Protestants in English-speaking countries.
• Roman Catholic is a term sometimes used to differentiate members of the Catholic Church in full communion
with the pope in Rome from other Christians who also self-identify as "Catholic". It is also sometimes used to
differentiate adherents to the Latin Church and its Roman rite from other Catholics, i.e. adherents of the Eastern
Catholic Churches of various Eastern rites. It is not the official name preferred by the Holy See or bishops in full
communion with the pope as a designation for their faith or institution."Catholic" is one of the Four Marks of the
Church set out in the Nicene Creed, a statement of belief widely accepted across Christian denominations.
Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox consider the term to refer to a single institutional one true
church, while Protestant ecclesiology considers it to refer to a church invisible referred to as the
Christian Church.Following the pejorative term "papist", attested in English since 1534,the terms "Popish Catholic"
and "Romish Catholic" came into use during the Protestant Reformation. From the 17th century, "Roman Catholic
Church" has been used as a synonym for the Catholic Church by some Anglicans and other Protestants in English-
speaking countries.
• Formulations such as the "Holy Roman Church" or the "Roman Catholic Church" have occurred by officials of
the Catholic Church before and after the Reformation. While it typically refers to the Diocese of Rome, such as
in Cardinal of the Holy Roman Church, it has also occurred in the context of ecumenical dialogue with
dialogue partners preferring this usage. 
• The tradition of the Catholic Church claims the Catholic Church began with Jesus Christ and his teachings;
the Catholic tradition considers that the Catholic Church is a continuation of the early Christian community
established by the Disciples of Jesus.The Church considers its bishops to be the successors to Jesus's apostles and
the Church's leader, the Bishop of Rome (also known as the Pope), to be the sole successor to Saint Peter, who
ministered in Rome in the first century AD after his appointment by Jesus as head of the Church.By the end of the
2nd century, bishops began congregating in regional synods to resolve doctrinal and policy issues.
• Duffy claims that by the 3rd century, the church at Rome might even function as a court of appeal on
doctrinal issues.Christianity spread throughout the early Roman Empire, with all persecutions due to conflicts with
the pagan state religion. In 313, the persecutions were lessened by the Edict of Milan with the legalization of
Christianity by the Emperor Constantine I. In 380, under Emperor Theodosius, Christianity became the state religion
of the Roman Empire by the Edict of Thessalonica, a decree of the Emperor which would persist until the fall of
the Western Roman Empire (Western Empire), and later, with the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire), until
the Fall of Constantinople. During this time, the period of the Seven Ecumenical Councils, there were considered
five primary sees (jurisdictions within the Catholic Church) according to Eusebius: Rome, Constantinople, Antioch,
Jerusalem, and Alexandria, known as the Pentarchy.
• The term "Catholic Church" is officially used by the Holy See. It is applied in the Catechism of the
Catholic Church (1990), the Code of Canon Law (1983), in the documents of the Second Vatican
Council (1962–1965), the First Vatican Council (1869–1870) and the Council of Trent (1545–1563),
and numerous other official documents. "Catholic Church" and "Catholics" is also broadly
reflected in most English-language academia and media.
 PROTESTANTISM
• Protestantism is a form of Christianity that originated with the
16th-century Reformation,[a] a movement against what its
followers perceived to be errors in the Catholic Church.
Protestants originating in the Reformation reject the Roman
Catholic doctrine of papal supremacy, but disagree among
themselves regarding the number of sacraments, the real
presence of Christ in the Eucharist, and matters of ecclesiastical
polity and apostolic succession. They emphasize the priesthood of
all believers; justification by faith alone (sola fide) rather than by
faith with good works; the teaching that salvation comes by divine
grace or "unmerited favor" only, not as something merited (sola
gratia); and either affirm the Bible as being the sole highest
authority (sola scriptura "scripture alone") or primary authority
(prima scriptura "scripture first") for Christian doctrine, rather
than being on parity with sacred tradition.The five solae of
Lutheran and Reformed Christianity summarise basic theological
differences in opposition to the Catholic Church.
• Protestantism began in Germany in 1517, when Martin Luther published his Ninety-five Theses as
a reaction against abuses in the sale of indulgences by the Catholic Church, which purported to
offer the remission of the temporal punishment of sins to their purchasers. The term, however,
derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of
the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were
earlier breaks and attempts to reform the Catholic Church, notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe
and Jan Hus, only Luther succeeded in sparking a wider, lasting and modern movement.In the
16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany[c] into Denmark, Norway, Sweden,
Finland, Latvia, Estonia and Iceland. Calvinist churches spread in Germany, Hungary, the
Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by Protestant Reformers such as John Calvin,
Huldrych Zwingli and John Knox.The political separation of the Church of England from the pope
under King Henry VIII began Anglicanism, bringing England and Wales into this broad Reformation
movement.
• Protestantism originated from the Protestation at Speyer in 1529, where the
nobility protested against enforcement of the Edict of Worms which
subjected advocates of Lutheranism to forfeiture of all of
their property.However, the theological underpinnings go back much further,
as Protestant theologians of the time cited both Church Fathers and the
Apostles to justify their choices and formulations. The earliest origin of
Protestantism is controversial; with some Protestants today claiming origin
back to groups in the early church deemed heretical such as the Montanists.
• Since the 16th century, major factors affecting Protestantism have been the
Catholic Counter-Reformation which opposed it successfully especially in
France, Spain and Italy. Then came an era of confessionalization followed
by Rationalism, Pietism, and the Great Awakenings. Major movements
today include Evangelicalism, mainline denominations, and Pentecostalism.
Calvinism 
• Calvinists broke from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th century. Calvinists differ from Lutherans
(another major branch of the Reformation) on the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, theories of
worship, the purpose and meaning of baptism, and the use of God's law for believers, among other
things. The term Calvinism can be misleading, because the religious tradition which it denotes has always
been diverse, with a wide range of influences rather than a single founder; however almost all of them
drew heavily from the writings of Augustine of Hippo twelve hundred years prior.
• The namesake of the movement, French reformer John Calvin, renounced. Roman Catholicism and
embraced Protestant views in the late 1520s or early 1530s, as the earliest notions of later Reformed
tradition were already espoused by Huldrych Zwingli. The movement was first called Calvinism,
referring to John Calvin, in the early 1550s by Lutherans who opposed it. Many within the tradition find it
either a nondescript or inappropriate term and prefer the term Reformed. The most important Reformed
theologians include Calvin, Zwingli, Martin Bucer, William Farel, Heinrich Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli,
Theodore Beza, and John Knox. In the twentieth century, Abraham Kuyper, Herman Bavinck, B. B.
Warfield, J. Gresham Machen, Louis Berkhof, Arthur Pink, Karl Barth, Martyn Lloyd-Jones, Cornelius Van
Til, Gordon Clark, R. C. Sproul, and J. I. Packer were influential. Contemporary Reformed theologians
include John MacArthur, Timothy J. Keller, David Wells, John Piper, and Michael Horton.The Reformed
tradition is largely represented by the Continental Reformed, Presbyterian, Evangelical Anglican,
Congregationalist, and Reformed Baptist denominational families. Several forms of ecclesiastical polity
are exercised by a group of Reformed churches, including presbyterian, congregationalist, and some
episcopal. The biggest Reformed association is the World Communion of Reformed Churches with more
than 100 million members in 211 member denominations around the world.There are more conservative
Reformed federations such as the World Reformed Fellowship and the International Conference
of Reformed Churches, as well as independent churches.
• Although much of Calvin's work was in Geneva, his publications spread his ideas of a correctly Reformed church to many parts of Europe. In Switzerland,
some cantons are still Reformed, and some are Catholic. Calvinism became the theological system of the majority in Scotland (see John Knox), the
Netherlands (see William Ames, T. J. Frelinghuysen and Wilhelmus à Brakel), some communities in Flanders, and parts of Germany (especially these
adjacent to the Netherlands) in the Palatinate, Kassel and Lippe with the likes of Olevianus and his colleague Zacharias Ursinus. In Hungary and the
then-independent Transylvania, Calvinism was a significant religion. In the 16th century, the Reformation gained many supporters in Eastern Hungary
and Hungarian-populated regions in Transylvania. In these parts, the Reformed nobles protected the faith. Almost all Transylvanian dukes were
Reformed. Today there are about 3.5 million Hungarian Reformed people worldwide. It was influential in France, Lithuania and Poland before being
mostly erased due to the counter-reformational activities taken up by the monarch in each country. In Poland, a faction called the Polish Brethren
broke away from Calvinism. This faction was started on January 22, 1556, when Piotr of Goniądz (Peter Gonesius), a Polish student, spoke out against
the doctrine of the Trinity during the general synod of the Reformed (Calvinist) churches of Poland held in the village of Secemin.Calvinism gained some
popularity in Scandinavia, especially Sweden, but was rejected in favor of Lutheranism after the Synod of Uppsala in 1593.
• Most settlers in the American Mid-Atlantic and New England were Calvinists, including the English Puritans, the French Huguenots and Dutch settlers of
New Amsterdam (New York), and the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians of the Appalachian back country. Nonconforming Protestants, Puritans, Separatists,
Independents, English religious groups coming out of the English Civil War, and other English dissenters not satisfied with the degree to which the
Church of England had been reformed, held overwhelmingly Reformed views. They are often cited among the primary founders of the United States of
America. Dutch and French Huguenot Calvinist settlers were also the first European colonizers of South Africa, beginning in the 17th century, who
became known as Boers or Afrikaners.Sierra Leone was largely colonized by Calvinist settlers from Nova Scotia, who were largely Black Loyalists, black
people who had fought for the British during the American War of Independence. John Marrant had organized a congregation there under the auspices
of the Huntingdon Connection. Some of the largest Calvinist communions were started by 19th- and 20th-century missionaries. Especially large are
those in Indonesia, Korea and Nigeria. In South Korea there are 20,000 Presbyterian congregations with about 9–10 million church members, scattered
in more than 100 Presbyterian denominations. In South Korea, Presbyterianism is the largest Christian denomination.
Puritanism
• Historians have produced and worked with a number of
definitions of Puritanism, in an unresolved debate on the
nature of the Puritan movement of the 16th and 17th
century. There are some historians who are prepared to reject
the term for historical use.John Spurr argues that changes in
the terms of membership of the Church of England, in 1604–
6, 1626, 1662, and also 1689, led to re-definitions of the word
"Puritan". Basil Hall, citing Richard Baxter. considers that
"Puritan" dropped out of contemporary usage in 1642, with
the outbreak of the First English Civil War, being replaced by
more accurate religious terminology. Current literature on
Puritanism supports two general points: Puritans were
identifiable in terms of their general culture, by
contemporaries, which changed over time; and they were
not identified by theological views alone.
• In the early 17th century, thousands of English Puritans colonized North America, mainly in
New England. Puritans were generally members of the Church of England who believed that
the Church of England was insufficiently reformed, retaining too much of its Roman Catholic
doctrinal roots, and who therefore opposed royal ecclesiastical policy under Elizabeth I of
England, James I of England, and Charles I of England. Most Puritans were "non-separating
Puritans" who did not advocate setting up separate congregations distinct from the Church
of England; these were later called Nonconformists. A small minority of Puritans were
"separating Puritans" who advocated setting up congregations outside the Church. The
Pilgrims were a Separatist group, and they established the Plymouth Colony in 1620. Non-
separating Puritans played leading roles in establishing the Massachusetts Bay Colony in
1629, the Saybrook Colony in 1635, the Connecticut Colony in 1636, and the New Haven
Colony in 1638. The Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations was established by
settlers expelled from the Massachusetts Bay Colony because of their unorthodox religious
opinions. Puritans were also active in New Hampshire before it became a crown colony in
1691.Most Puritans who migrated to North America came in the decade 1630–1640 in what
is known as the Great Migration. The Puritans of New England evolved into
the Congregationalist churches.
• Luther was ordained to the priesthood in 1507. He came to reject several teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church; in
particular, he disputed the view on indulgences. Luther proposed an academic discussion of the practice and efficacy of indulgences in his
Ninety-five Theses of 1517. His refusal to renounce all of his writings at the demand of Pope Leo X in 1520 and the Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V at the Diet of Worms in 1521 resulted in his excommunication by the pope and condemnation as an outlaw by the Holy Roman
Emperor.
• Luther taught that salvation and, consequently, eternal life are not earned by good deeds but are received only as the free gift of God's grace
through the believer's faith in Jesus Christ as redeemer from sin. His theology challenged the authority and office of the pope by teaching
that the Bible is the only source of divinely revealed knowledge,and opposed sacerdotalism by considering all baptized Christians to be a
holy priesthood. Those who identify with these, and all of Luther's wider teachings, are called Lutherans, though Luther insisted on Christian
or Evangelical (German: evangelisch) as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ.
• His translation of the Bible into the German vernacular (instead of Latin) made it more accessible to the laity, an event that had a
tremendous impact on both the church and German culture. It fostered the development of a standard version of the German language,
added several principles to the art of translation, and influenced the writing of an English translation, the Tyndale Bible.His hymns influenced
the development of singing in Protestant churches.His marriage to Katharina von Bora, a former nun, set a model for the practice of clerical
marriage, allowing Protestant clergy to marry.In two of his later works, Luther expressed antagonistic, violent views towards Jews and called
for the burnings of their synagogues and their expulsion.His rhetoric was not directed at Jews alone but also towards Roman Catholics,
Anabaptists, and nontrinitarian Christians.Luther died in 1546 with Pope Leo X's excommunication still in effect.
• Pope Gregory IX canonized Francis on 16 July 1228. Along with Catherine of Siena, he
was designated patron saint of Italy. He later became associated with patronage of animals and
the natural environment, and it became customary for churches to hold ceremonies blessing
animals on his feast day of 4 October. In 1219, he went to Egypt in an attempt to convert the
sultan al-Kamil and put an end to the conflict of the Fifth Crusade. Once his community was
authorized by the Pope, he withdrew increasingly from external affairs.
• Francis is known for his love of the Eucharist.In 1223, Francis arranged for the first Christmas live
nativity scene.According to Christian tradition, in 1224 he received the stigmata during
the apparition of a Seraphic angel in a religious ecstasy.
Decisions made by "The
Council trent"
• The Council of Trent 1545-1563 made a number of
changes in the Catholic Church. It expanded its
doctrines in the light of the changed attitudes of the
times. It condemned leading an
irresponsible religious life by the clergy. Books
which were considered to have had ideas against
the Catholic teaching were banned. The Pope was
regarded as the head of the Catholic Church and
the final interpreter of the Christian doctrine. The
Council of Trent was responsible for establishing
centers known as seminaries to educate and train
priests. It forbade the Church to charge fees for
conducting religious services and advocated the use
of the local language for preaching in the Church.
Impact on Education
• Prior the Reformation, education was strictly the purview of
the clergy and aristocrats, but the reformers believed
that education should be available to everyone. The schools
they started were the first, in line with Jesus and Paul,
to educate girls and desired that every child of God reach their
full potential for God’s glory. Luther expressed, “Even if there
were no soul, and men did not need schools and languages for
the sake of Christianity and the Scriptures; still, for the
establishment of the best schools everywhere, both for boys
and girls, this consideration is of itself sufficient, namely, that
society, for the maintenance of civil order and the proper
regulation of the household, needs accomplished and well-
trained men and women” (1524). Joel Beeke in Calvin for
Today states, the later reformers like John Calvin “opened the
way for people to raise themselves by education and by the
diligent use of their knowledge and abilities.”
• The reformers taught the parents and the church held the primary responsibility of educating
children under the authority of God’s Word (with possible support from the state). Luther and
Calvin personally started numerous schools with existing churches. Parents were expected to
reinforce instruction at home and church leaders would assess the instructional process and a
student’s progress throughout the school year. Luther encouraged the state to provide stability to
education by undertaking and supporting primary and secondary schools. He said, “Therefore it
will be proper for the civil authorities to exercise the greatest care and industry in regard to the
young; for, since the interests of the city are committed to their trust, they would not do well
before God and the world if they did not seek with all their might to promote its prosperity. Now,
the prosperity of a city does not consist alone in the vast treasures, strong walls, beautiful houses,
large supplies of muskets and armor; yea, when these things are found, and fools
exercise authority, it is so much worse for the city. The best and richest treasure of a city is that it
have many pure, learned, intelligent, honest, well-educated citizens, for these can collect,
preserve, and properly use whatever is good” (1524).
• The reformer’s perspective on the sovereignty of God over all creation affected how they
approached the study of all topics. All truth is God’s truth and theology, as the queen of the
sciences, unifies all knowledge and understanding under the guiding principles of Scripture. As
Mark Thompson wrote in Engaging with Calvin, “According to Calvin, science was a gift of God,
created for benefit of mankind. The real source of natural knowledge was the Holy Spirit.
Whoever dealt with it acknowledged God, obeyed the call of God, and focused on God’s creation.
Thus, biology was also theology.” The reformers knew that the Reformation movement would
grow through the study of arts and sciences through the lens of scripture. They also thought of
education as a way to prepare students more efficiently to easily perform their daily duties in life.
In some way even the concept of adult studies was encouraged, or at least schools at hours which
would not interfere with the work schedule of those obligated to earn their living; these guidelines
were recommended to authorities of both the church and state. Luther stated students should
“spend an hour or two a day in school, and the rest of the time at work at home, learning some
trade and doing whatever is desired, so that study and work go together…” (1530).
• The reformers viewed the position of teacher as very important. They actually viewed teachers
as officers and servants of the church. The call to “Scripture Alone” required teachers who would teach
how to read and understand the Word of God. Because of this, they required teachers not only to have
expertise and education in their discipline, but also to obtain a degree in theology and to demonstrate
high character. They also thought that teacher’s compensation should be high enough to provide
education to the poor who could not afford to pay for their own instruction.
• John Calvin founded the Genevan Academy. It became the model for colleges and universities
for several centuries. Hugh Whelchel describes, “the Academy was a university that offered
higher learning in a number of subjects, including theology, training pastors, and those preparing for
other vocations.” The Academy also viewed its purpose to prepare those who would serve in the
church and in government. Historians affirm that wherever followers of the Reformation went,
they founded churches, school, and colleges. In fact, many of America’s early colleges, like
Yale, Harvard, and Princeton, were originally based on the model set by the Genevan Academy.
• Luther advocated for a broader range of subjects to be taught to students based
on liberalis study that taught students to contribute to society rather than servilus education that
simply taught one skill to keep people in servitude. He retained the normal course of study for the
clergy (Latin, Greek, and mathematics), but he also recommended Hebrew, more mathematics
and additionally he insisted on nature studies, the sciences, rhetoric, gymnastics, history, and
music. He realized the cultural power and practical value of music. Of course, Luther gave priority
to the Christian teaching in all educational endeavors, so perhaps he was one of the first
reformers to teach the Christian Worldview (along with Calvin). By using the Bible and the
Catechism, he focused on developing the heart as well as the head. He also insisted on teaching
being in the vernacular. He believed that students should not be subject to the medieval tradition
of harshness, but rather should be dealt with gently and kindly, being ruled by love and not fear
so they would find joy in learning. He also began the tradition of Academic Freedom by allowing
liberty and opportunity for self-expression and questions within the classroom
Impact on Paintings
• Reaction to Mannerism.
• The stylistic changes evident in the visual arts at the beginning of the Baroque period can in part be
traced to historical developments that occurred in the wake of the Council of Trent (1545–1563), the
church council that was to define the character of Roman Catholicism and its teachings until modern
times. The Council's purpose was to debate and to answer the attacks Protestants had made against
the church and to reform abuses in church practices and administration. During the final days of the
session, the church's fathers met to discuss issues surrounding the invocation of relics and the use of
statues and images in religious worship. Because the deliberations were hampered by
time considerations, many questions were left unresolved at Trent, although the Council's decrees
insisted on the value of religious art, a position that rejected the criticisms levied by some radical
Protestant factions of the day that paintings and statues violated Old Testament prohibitions against
"graven images." By contrast, the fathers at Trent reiterated the Catholic Church's long-standing
support for religious art. Its purposes, they intoned, should be didactic, that is, it should serve to
educate the unlettered masses in the truths of the church. While the Council insisted that bishops had a
duty to eliminate works whose message was unclear or indistinct, their decrees provided few guidelines
for establishing acceptable religious art. In the years that followed, the subject of religious art came to
be debated vigorously throughout Italy, largely through the efforts of two Italian bishops: Charles
Borromeo (1538–1584) of Milan and Gabrielle Paleotti (1522–1597) of Bologna. Both figures were
widely influential in establishing guidelines for the creation of religious art, even as they came to
vigorously oppose many designs and themes favored by Mannerist artists and their patrons. Borromeo,
a major figure in many aspects of Catholic reform, published his treatise Instructions for Builders and
Decorators of Churches, in 1577, and its 33 chapters considered such subjects as the proper church
layout, design, and furnishings necessary for Christian worship. In one chapter, he discussed the ways in
which artists should treat sacred themes. Borromeo argued that religious art should present its themes
in a clear, readily intelligible way so that art might instruct viewers in Catholic teaching and encourage
the faithful to repent. This work also prescribed a system of fines for painters and sculptors who
violated these guidelines.
• Borromeo 's Influence on Religious Art.
• While Borromeo aimed to censor religious art by outlawing the Mannerist tendency to
veil meanings, the bishop was at the same time an enthusiastic promoter of religious
images. The Spiritual Exercises of Saint Ignatius Loyola had very much shaped his own
piety. In that work, the founder of the Jesuit Order had recommended that the faithful
place before their mind's eye images of the Passion and the feats of the saints so that
they might flee sin. Among the contemporary artists Borromeo admired were
Jacopo Bassano, Antonio Campi, and the great Venetian Titian, and his private
collection of images included several works by these masters. In public commissions
for the Cathedral of Milan, Borromeo favored works by Antonio and Giulio Campi,
brothers who were members of a prominent family of artists from nearby Cremona.
Their works exemplified Borromeo's principles by being readily intelligible and treating
their subjects in clear and forceful ways. The messages of their works were set off with
artistic features that enhanced their emotional appeal. As the sixteenth century drew
to a close, other artists came to study Borromeo's writings as well, and in this way, the
circle of artistic innovators who were capable of expressing the new principles of
Catholic reform broadened.
• Gabrielle Paleotti.
• Another force in the reform of religious art at the end of the sixteenth century was Cardinal Gabrielle Paleotti (1522–1597). Born in
Bologna, Paleotti received a doctorate in canon law by the time he was 23, and eventually made his way to Rome, where he rose to become
the judge of the Sacra Rota, a key court of appeals within the Vatican government. He was raised to the rank of a cardinal in 1565 and a year
later was made bishop of Bologna. While much of his career was spent furthering the cause of church reform, he became fascinated with the
subject of religious art in particular. Toward the end of the 1570s, he dedicated himself to writing a massive theological treatise on the
correct uses of painting and sculpture within Catholicism. A friend of Borromeo, he took as his departure point the Milanese bishop's earlier
work on church building and decoration, but he intended his Discourses to be a far more thorough examination of all the issues surrounding
religious art. Like Borromeo, he insisted that religious art's messages must be clear and forcefully conveyed, but at the same time he
recommended a return to the naturalism of the Renaissance and the fostering of a spirit of historical realism in painting. Paleotti was never
able to complete his theological work on painting and sculpture, but even in its incomplete form his treatise was to have a major impact in
defining the religious art of the later sixteenth century. At Bologna, his work encouraged a number of artists to abandon Mannerist
conventions and to develop a clearer and more forceful presentational style in their religious works. Among the most prominent artists to
study Paleotti's recommendations and to adopt them in their work were Annibale, Lodovico, and Agostino Carracci, key figures in expressing
many of the design tenets that subsequently flourished during the early Baroque. Yet during the 1580s and 1590s, Paleotti's generally
humane and moderate proposals for artistic reform went unheeded in the larger Italian artistic world. By the 1590s, the cardinal
had returned to Rome to take up administrative duties within the church. Surveying the artistic scene in the church's capital, he grew
increasingly pessimistic about the direction contemporary religious art was taking. During these years, he proposed that the church establish
an office to censor religious images, an office that would be similar to the Index of Prohibited Books, an institution that, since 1559, had been
charged with supervising and censoring book publication in Catholic countries. The plan was not adopted, and Paleotti died several years
later. In the years immediately following his death, though, some of Paleotti's prescriptions for a historically accurate and naturalistic art
came to fruition in the works of artists at Rome. At the same time, a new fashion for propagandistic works became evident, as leaders of the
Catholic Reformation came to commission works that celebrated the triumph of the church in a grand and monumental fashion.
• The Roman Jubilee of 1600.
• Something of the sense of triumphal resurgence that was developing at Rome can be gleaned
from the preparations that occurred in Rome to mark the Jubilee year 1600. Jubilee years had
long been celebrated in the church's history to mark the passage of every quarter century,
but during the sixteenth century, the rise of Protestantism had discouraged such events. To
mark a departure from the recent dismal past, Pope Clement VIII planned to make the Jubilee
Year 1600 into a major occasion that might promote the renewal that was underway in the
church. During the Jubilee more than three million pilgrims visited the city to admire the
many monuments that Clement and his immediate successors had built in preceding years.
Among these were the Dome of St. Peter's, the Jesuit's Church of Il Gesù, major renovations
to the Church of St. John Lateran, as well as a number of public monuments and squares. As
the expectation for this event grew, many of Rome's religious institutions and church officials
came to commission a number of religious works from painters and sculptors. The works
of the greatest of these artists came to express a new dramatic tension, a sense of
movement, and realism that responded to the Catholic Reformation's demands for a clear
and forceful art that might stir the hearts of the faithful. In this way Rome was to shape the
development of the early Baroque style in the visual arts in a way that was similar to the role
that it was acquiring as Europe's major center of architectural design.
 1. Meaning of Reformation & Counter Reformation 

2a) Roman Catholicism 

b) Protestantism

c) Calvanism

BIBLIOGRAP d) Puritanism

HY 3. a) Martin Luther     

b) Francis Xavier 

4. Decisions by the Council trent

5a) Impact on Education 

b) Impact on Art
• Thank you 
• By  Gajendra Gehlot