Introduction

• Tables are essential in presentation of scientific data

• Most convincing and appealing ways to present
statistical results - through diagrams and graphs.
• Just one diagram is enough to represent a given data
more effectively than thousand words.
• Graphic presentations used to illustrate and clarify
information.
• Diagrams are complementary to summarize these
tables in an easy, attractive and simple way.
• Facilitate comparison of data relating to different period
of time of different region.
• Help in making quick and accurate comparison of data
 Diagrams
Diagram
• A diagram is a visual form for presentation of statistical
data, highlighting their basic facts and relationship.
• If we draw diagrams on the basis of the data
collected they will easily be understood and appreciated
by all.
• It is readily intelligible and save a considerable amount of
time and energy.
 Signifi cance of Diagrams and Graphs

1. They are attractive and impressive.

2. They make data simple and intelligible.
3. They make comparison possible
4. They save time and labour.
5. They have universal utility.
6. They give more information.
7. They have a great memorizing effect.
General rules for constructing diagrams
1. A diagram should be neatly drawn and attractive.
2. The measurements of geometrical figures used in
diagram should be accurate and proportional
3. The size of the diagrams should match the size
of the paper.
4. Every diagram must have a suitable but short heading.
5. The scale should be menti oned in the diagram.
6. Diagrams should be neatly as well as accurately drawn
with the help of drawing instruments.
7. Index must be given for identification so that the reader
can easily make out the meaning of the diagram.
8. Footnote must be given at the bott om of the diagram.
9. Econom y in cost and energy should be
exercised in drawing diagram.
 The diagram should be:
• Simple
• Easy to understand
• Save a lot of words
• Self explanatory
• Has a clear title indicating its content
• Fully labeled
• The y axis (vertical) is usually used for
frequency
 Types of
Diagrams

One- Two- Three- Pictograms

dimensional dimensional dimensional and
Diagrams Diagrams Diagrams cartograms
 In such diagrams, only one-dimensional measurement,
i.e.
height is used and the width is not considered. Percentag
e bar
Sub- diagram
divided
Multiple bar
bar diagram
Simple diagram
diagra
Line
m
diagra
m
 Line Diagram
• Line diagram is used in case where there are many items to be
shown and there is not much of difference in their values.
• Such diagram is prepared by drawing a vertical line for each item
according to the scale.
• The distance between lines is kept uniform.
• Line diagram makes comparison easy, but it is less attractive.
 Bar diagram
• Widely used, easy to prepare tool for comparing categories of
mutually exclusive discrete data.
• Different categories are indicated on one axis and frequency of data
in each category on another axis.
• Length of the bar indicate the magnitude of the frequency of the
character to be compared.
• Spacing between the various bar should be equal to half of the width
of the bar.
• 5 types of bar diagram:
Simple
Multiple or compound
Component or proportional
Deviation
Broken Bar
 Simple Bar Diagram
• Used to represent one variable
– The figures of production, population etc for
various years may be shown
• Can be vertical or horizontal
 Simple bar diagram:
Malaria cases in Nair Hospital in July 2010
120

100

80

Total No cases Male

60

40

20

0
P.Vivax P.Falciparum Mixed malaria
 Multiple Bar Diagram
• Two or more set of interrelated data are represented.
• Technique is same as simple bar diagram but more than one
phenomenon is represented.
• Bars are constructed side by side to represent the set of
values for comparison.
• Different colors, patterns are used to show the difference
between the bars.
• Whenever a comparison is to be made between two or more
related variable, multiple bar diagram should be preferred.
• An index is also prepared to identify the meaning of different
colours or patterns.
Multiple or Compound diagram
Distribution of malaria cases in Nair Hospital in July
2010
120

100 102

80
Male
Female
60 62
57
40
31 29
20
19
0
P.Vivax P.Falciparum Mixed malaria
 Sub-divided or Component
• Bar is sub-divided into various parts in proportion to the
values given in the data and the whole bar represent the
total.
• It indicate the composition of the total divided into
sections according to their relative proportion.
• The sub divisions are distinguished by different colors or
crossings or dotting.
• The main defect of such a diagram is that all the parts do not have
a common base to enable one to compare accurately the various
components of the data.
 Component bar
For example two communities are compared in their

proportion of energy obtained from various food stuff,

each bar represents energy intake by one community,

the height of the bar is 100, it is divided horizontally into

3 components (Protein, Fat and carbohydrate) of diet,

each component is represented by different color or

shape.
 Component or proportional bar diagram
Proportion of energy intake obtained from various food
stuff by poor and rich community
100%
90%
80%
70% 55 % of energy obtained Fats
% of energy obtained Pro-
60% 80 tein
50% % of energy obtained
Carbohdrate
40%
30% 30
20%
10
10% 15
10
0%
Poor Community Rich Community
Example
 Percentage Bar Diagram
• The components are not the actual values but percentages of
the whole.
• The main difference between the sub-divided bar diagram and
percentage bar diagram is that in the former the bars are of
different heights since their totals may be different whereas in
the latter the bars are of equal height since each bar
represents 100 percent.
• Length of bar is kept equal to 100 and segments are cut in these
bar to represent the component(%) of an aggregate.
• Useful in statistical work which require the portrayal of relative
changes in data.
• In the case of data having sub-division, percentage bar diagram
will be more appealing than sub-divided bar diagram.
 Deviation Bars
• Used for representing net quantities – excess
or deficit
• Have both negative and positive value
Sale and net profit
60%
50%
40%
Year Sales Net Profit 30%
Sales
2009-10 14% 49% 20%
Net Profit
2010-11 10% -25% 10%
0%
2011-12 13% -1% 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12
-10%
-20%
-30%
Year
 Broken Bar
• In certain series there may be wide variation in values
• In order to gain space for smaller bar of the series, the largest
bar may be broken
 In two-dimensional diagrams the area represent the data
and so the length and breadth have both to be taken into
account.
 Such diagrams are also called area diagrams or surface
diagrams.
 The important types of area diagrams are:
1. Rectangles.
2. Squares.
3. Pie-diagrams
 Rectangles
• Rectangles are used to represent the relative magnitude of
two or more values.
• The area of the rectangles are kept in proportion to the
values.
• Rectangles are placed side by side for comparison.
• We may represent the figures as they are given or may
convert them to percentages and then subdivide the length
into various components.
• Solution: The items of expenditure will be converted into percentage as shown below
 Squares
• The rectangular method of diagrammatic presentation is difficult
to use where the values of items vary widely.
• The method of drawing a square diagram is very simple.
• One has to take the square root of the values of various item
that are to be shown in the diagrams and then select a suitable
scale to draw the squares.
 Pie diagram:
• Used to show percentage breakdown
• Should be used in % wise rather than absolute value
• Consist of a circle whose area represents the total
frequency (100%) which is divided into segments.
• Each segment represents a proportional composition of
the total frequency.
• Largest sector component should start at 12 0’clock
position on the circle
• Component sectors are placed in clockwise succession
in descending order of magnitude
 Pie diagram:
• A pie chart is a pie - a circle - which means it has 360 degrees.
To get the proper distribution, we use this formula: 
x/360 = % 
Where x is the angle covered by the area, % is the percentage
of the total. For example: 
• We have 100 samples of balls. 20 are red, 50 are blue, and 30
are green. To create a pie chart for this, use this: 
% red = 20/100 = 20% 
20% is 0.2, so we use the formula above: 
x/360 = 0.2 or x = 72 
So the red balls will represent 72 degrees in the whole 360 degree rotation of the chart.  
72 = red, ? = blue  and ? = green
 Steps to draw Pie diagram:
• Prepare the data so that the various
component values can be transported into
corresponding degrees on the circle
• Draw a circle of appropriate size
• Measure points on the circle representing
the size of each sector with the help of
protractor
 Pie diagram:
• Imagine you just did a survey of your friends to find which kind of
movie they liked best. Results is :
Table: Favorite Type of Movie
Comedy Action Romance Drama SciFi
4 5 6 1 4

Comedy Action Romance Drama SciFi TOTAL

4 5 6 1 4 20
4/20 =20% 5/20 =25% 6/20 =30% 1/20 = 5% 4/20 =20% 100%
4/20 × 360° 5/20 × 360° 6/20 × 360° 1/20 × 360° 4/20 × 360°
360°
= 72° = 90° = 108° = 18° = 72°
Pie diagram:
 It consists of cubes, cylinders, spheres, etc.
 In such diagrams three things, namely length, width and height
have to be taken into account.
 Of all the figures, making of cubes is easy. Side of a cube
is drawn in proportion to the cube root of the magnitude of
data.
 Cubes of figures can be ascertained with the help of
logarithms.
 The logarithm of the figures can be divided by 3 and the antilog
of that value will be the cube-root.
 Pictograms are not abstract presentation such as lines
or bars but really depict the kind of data we are
dealing with.
 Pictures are attractive and easy to comprehend and as
such this method is particularly useful in presenting
statistics to the layman.
 When Pictograms are used, data are represented
through a pictorial symbol that is carefully selected.
 Cartograms or statistical maps are used to give
quantitative information as a geographical basis.
 They are used to represent spatial distributions.
 The quantities on the map can be shown in many
ways such as through shades or colors or dots or
placing pictogram in each geographical unit.
 Graphs
 A graph is a visual form of presentation of statistical data.
 A graph is more attractive than a table of figure. Even a
common man can understand the message of data from the
graph.
 Comparisons can be made between two or more phenomena
very easily with the help of a graph.
 Used for
• Time series data
• Frequency distribution
 Histogram

Frequency
Lorenz
Polygon
Curve
Graph
s
Ogiv Frequency
e Curve
 Line Graph
• A line graph uses a series of line segments to show
changes in data over time.
• Plot a point for each data item, and then connect the
dots with straight line (either broken line or smooth
curve segments.
• Used to show the trend of events
 Rules for line graphs
• Time on X-axis and variable on Y-axis
• Variable under consideration should be mentioned in title
• Begin Y-axis with 0 and select a suitable scale so that
entire data can be accommodate in the space available.
• Corresponding to time factor plot the value of the variable
• Join the point with straight line or dotted lines
• If on graph, more than one variable is to be shown,
distinguish it by color or thickness.
• Proper index is to be provided for all of the variable in
consideration.
Refer to page 336 for the line graph.
 A. Histogram
 A histogram is a bar chart or graph showing the frequency of
occurrence of each value of the variable being analyzed.
 In histogram, data are plotted as a series of rectangles. Class intervals
are shown on the ‘X-axis’ and the frequencies on the ‘Y-axis’ .
 The height of each rectangle represents the frequency of the class
interval. Each rectangle is formed with the other so as to give a
continuous picture. Such a graph is also called staircase or block
diagram.
 we cannot construct a histogram for distribution with open- end
classes. It is also quite misleading if the distribution has unequal
intervals and suitable adjustments in frequencies are not made.
 B. Frequency Polygon
 If we mark the midpoints of the top horizontal sides of
the rectangles in a histogram and join them by a
straight line, the figure so formed is called a Frequency
Polygon.
 This is done under the assumption that the frequencies in
a class interval are evenly distributed throughout the
class.
 The area of the polygon is equal to the area of the
histogram, because the area left outside is just equal to
the area included in it.
 C. Frequency Curve
 If the middle point of the upper boundaries of the rectangles
of a histogram is corrected by a smooth freehand curve, then
that diagram is called frequency curve.
 The curve should begin and end at the base line.
 D. Ogives
 For a set of observations, we know how to construct a frequency distribution. In some
cases we may require the number of observations less than a given value or more
than a given value.
 It requires to add the frequency . When frequency are accumulated they are called
cumulative frequency.
 These cumulative frequencies are then listed in a table is called cumulative frequency
table. The curve table is obtained by plotting cumulative frequencies is called a
cumulative frequency curve or an ogive.
 Ogive

The ‘ less The ‘more

than ogive’ than ogive’
method method.
• In less than ogive method we start with the
upper limits of the classes and go adding the
frequencies. When these frequencies are
plotted, we get a rising curve.

• In more than ogive method, we start with the

lower limits of the classes and from the total
frequencies we subtract the frequency of
each class. When these frequencies are
plotted we get a declining curve.
Class Less than ogive More than ogive
limit
20 0 110
30 4 106
40 10 100
50 23 87
60 48 62
70 80 30
80 99 11
90 107 3
100 110 0
 E. Lorenz Curve
 Lorenz curve is a graphical method of studying dispersion. It
was introduced by Max.O.Lorenz, a great Economist and a
statistician, to study the distribution of wealth and income.
 It is also used to study the variability in the distribution of
profits, wages, revenue, etc.
 It is specially used to study the degree of inequality in the
distribution of income and wealth between countries or
between different periods.
 It is a percentage of cumulative values of one variable in
combined with the percentage of cumulative values in other
variable and then Lorenz curve is drawn.
 E. Lorenz Curve (Cont)
 The curve starts from the origin (0,0) and ends at
(100,100). If the wealth, revenue, land etc are equally
distributed among the people of the country, then the
Lorenz curve will be the diagonal of the square. But this
is highly impossible.

 The deviation of the Lorenz curve from the diagonal,

shows how the wealth, revenue, land etc are not equally
distributed among people.
 Scatter/ dot diagram
• Scatter plots (also called scatter graphs) are similar to line graphs. A
line graph uses a line on an X-Y axis to plot a continuous function,
while a scatter plot uses dots to represent individual pieces of data. In
statistics, these plots are useful to see if two variables are related to
each other. For example, a scatter chart can suggest a linear
relationship (i.e. a straight line).
Also called as Correlation diagram ,it is useful to represent the
relationship between two numeric measurements, each observation
being represented by a point corresponding to its value on each axis.
In negative correlation, the points will be scattered in downward
direction, meaning that the relation between the two studied
measurements is controversial i.e. if one measure increases the other
decreases
While in positive correlation, the points will be scattered in upward
direction.
 HS cases During monsoon in Nair Hospital: Year
2010
500
450 450
400
350
300 304

250
200
150
100 89
50
Series1; 30
0
Difference b/w Graph and diagram
• Graphs are prepared on graph paper
• Diagrams are constructed on plain paper.
• Diagrams are more attractive and better
suited for publicity and propaganda
• For FD and time series, graphs are more
appropriate than diagrams.
 Practical Exercise - 4
• Below is given the Buffalo population (in Millions) of the four
states of India. Draw the Bar diagram, Part-bar diagram, Pie
diagram and part pie diagram to represent the data
graphically.
Year \ U.P. M.P. Rajasthan Punjab
States
1982 15.785 6.435 6.043 4.590
1987 18.240 6.365 6.343 5.575
1992 20.084 7.970 7.708 6.008
 Practical Exercise - 4
Below is given the Livestock Population of India in Million nos. Construct
the Bar-diagram and Pie- diagram for total livestock population and
component Bar-diagram and Pie-diagram showing the total livestock
population and distribution of different species in India

Species 1951 1956 1961 1966 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997
Cattle 155.3 158.7 175.6 176.2 178.3 180.0 192.45 199.69 204.58 197.71
Buffalo 43.4 44.9 51.2 53.0 57.4 62.0 69.78 75.97 84.21 88.83
Sheep 39.1 39.3 40.2 42.4 40.0 41.0 48.76 45.7 50.78 56.77
Goat 47.2 55.4 60.9 64.6 67.5 75.6 95.25 110.21 115.28 120.77
Horse 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.1 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.82 0.59
&Ponies
Camels 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.08 1.0 1.03 0.88
Pigs 4.4 4.9 5.2 5.0 6.9 7.6 10.07 10.63 12.79 13.58
Mules 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.13 0.17 0.19 0.11
Donkeys 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.02 0.96 0.97 0.64
T. Livestock 292.8 306.6 335.4 344.1 353.6 369.0 419.59 445.29 470.86 479.93