TWT

Magnetron
Gunn Diode
• Travelling wave tubes are broadband microwave
devices which have no cavity resonators like
Klystrons. Amplification is done through the
prolonged interaction between an electron beam
and Radio Frequency RFRF field.
• Travelling wave tube is a cylindrical structure which
contains an electron gun from a cathode tube. It has
anode plates, helix and a collector. RF input is sent to
one end of the helix and the output is drawn from
the other end of the helix.
• . The axial phase velocity VpVp is represethe
amplified output is obtained at the output of
TWTnted as
Vp=Vc(Pitch/2πr)
 Applications of Travelling Wave Tube

• TWT is used in microwave receivers as a low noise RF amplifier.

• TWTs are also used in wide-band communication links and co-
axial cables as repeater amplifiers or intermediate amplifiers
to amplify low signals.
• TWTs have a long tube life, due to which they are used as
power output tubes in communication satellites.
• Continuous wave high power TWTs are used in Troposcatter
links, because of large power and large bandwidths, to scatter
to large distances.
• TWTs are used in high power pulsed radars and ground based
radars.
• It is a special type of vacuum tube that offers
an operating frequency ranging between 300
MHz to 50 GHz.
• It offers average power gain of around 60 dB.
The output power lies in the range of few
watts to several megawatts.
: c = velocity of light (3 * 108 m/s)
VP = phase velocity in m/s
P = pitch of helix in m
d = diameter of the helix in m
 Magnetron
• A magnetron is a device that generates high
power electromagnetic wave. It is basically
considered as a self-excited microwave
oscillator. And is also known as a crossed-field
device.
• The reason behind calling it so is that the
electric and magnetic field produced inside the
tube are mutually perpendicular to each other
thus the two crosses each other.
• Magnetrons are majorly used in radar as being
the only high power source of RF signal as a
power oscillator despite a power amplifier. It
was invented in the year 1921 by Albert Hull.
However, an improved high power cavity
magnetron was invented in 1940 by John
Randall and Harry Boot.
Construction of Magnetrons
• A cylindrical magnetron has a cylindrical
cathode of a certain length and radius present
at the centre around which a cylindrical anode
is present. The cavities are present at the
circumference of the anode at equal spacing.
• Also, the area existing between anode and
cathode of the tube is known as interaction
space/region.
• It is to be noted here that there exists a phase
difference of 180⁰ between adjacent cavities.
Therefore, cavities will transfer their excitation
from one cavity to another with a phase shift
of 180⁰.
• Thus we can say that if one plate is positive
then automatically its adjacent plate will be
negative. And this is clearly shown in the figure
given above.
 Working of Magnetron
• The excitation to the cathode of the
magnetron is provided by a dc supply which
causes the emergence of electrons from it.
• working of magnetron under two categories.
First without applying the RF input to the
anode and the second one with the
application of RF input.
 1. When RF input is not present

Case I: When the magnetic field is 0 or absent

• When the magnetic field is absent then the
electron emerging from the cathode radially
moves towards the anode. This is shown in the
figure below:
This is so because the moving electron does not experience the effect of the magnetic field
and moves in a straight path.
 Case II: When a small magnetic field is present

• In case a small magnetic field exists inside the

magnetron then the electron emerging from
the cathode will slightly deviate from its
straight path. And this will cause a curvy
motion of the electron from cathode to anode
as shown in the figure:
Case III: In case when the magnetic field is further increased
then electrons emerging from the cathode gets highly deflected
by the magnetic field. And graze along the surface of the
cathode, as shown below:
• This causes the anode current to be 0. The
value of the magnetic field that causes the
anode current to become 0 is known as
the critical magnetic field.
• If the magnetic field is increased beyond the
critical magnetic field. Then the electron will
bounce back to the cathode itself without
reaching the anode.
• The reaching of the emitted electrons from
the cathode back to it is known as back
heating. So to avoid this the electric supply
provided to the cathode must be cut-off after
oscillations have been set up in the tube.
 2. When the RF field is present
• Case I: In case an active RF input is provided to the
anode of the magnetron then oscillations are set up
in the interaction space of the magnetron. So, when
an electron is emitted from the cathode to anode
then it transfers its energy in order to oscillate.
• Such electrons are called favoured electrons. In this
condition, the electrons will have a low velocity and
thus will take a considerably high amount of time to
reach from cathode to anode.
• Case II: Another condition arises in the
presence of RF input. In this case, the emitted
electron from the cathode while travelling
takes energy from the oscillations thereby
resultantly increasing its velocity.
• So despite reaching the anode, the electrons
will bounce back to the cathode and these
electrons are known as unfavoured electrons.
• Case III: When the RF input is further increased then the
electron emitted while travelling increases its velocity in
order to catch up the electron emitted earlier with
comparatively lower velocity.
• So, all those electrons that do not take energy from the
oscillations for their movement are known as favoured
electrons. And these favoured electrons form electron
bunch or electron cloud and reaches anode from the
cathode.
• The formation of electron bunch inside the tube is known
as phase focusing effect.
• Due to this, the orbit of the electron gets confined
into spokes. These spokes rotate according to some
fractional value of electron emitted by the cathode
until it reaches anode while delivering their energy
to oscillations.
• However, the electrons released from the region of
cathode between spokes, will take the energy of the
field and get back to the cathode very quickly. But
this energy is very small in comparison to the energy
delivered to the oscillations. 
• The movement of these favoured electrons
inside the tube enhances the field existing
between the gaps in the cavity. This leads to
sustained oscillations inside the magnetron
thereby providing high power at the output.
 Advantages
• Magnetrons are a highly efficient device used
for generation of the high power microwave
signal.
• The use of magnetrons in radar can produce
radar system of better quality for tracking
purpose.
• It is usually small in size thus less bulky.
 Disadvantages
• It is quite expensive.
• Despite producing a wide range of frequency,
there exists a drawback in controllability of
the generated frequency.
• It offers average power of around 1 to 2
kilowatts.
• Magnetrons are quite noisy.
 Applications
• A major application of magnetron is present in
a pulsed radar system in order to produce a
high-power microwave signal.
• Magnetrons are also used in heating
appliances likes microwave ovens so as to
produce fixed frequency oscillations.
 Types of Magnetrons

Negative Resistance Type

• The negative resistance between two anode
segments, is used.
• They have low efficiency.
• They are used at low frequencies <500MHz
Cyclotron Frequency Magnetrons
• The synchronism between the electric
component and oscillating electrons is
considered.
• Useful for frequencies higher than 100MHz.
Travelling Wave or Cavity Type
• The interaction between electrons and
rotating EM field is taken into account.
• High peak power oscillations are provided.
• Useful in radar applications.
• This Cavity Magnetron has 8 cavities tightly
coupled to each other. An N-cavity magnetron
has NN modes of operations. These
operations depend upon the frequency and
the phase of oscillations. The total phase shift
around the ring of this cavity resonators
should be 2nπ2nπ where nn is an integer.
• A Gunn diode, also known as a transferred electron
device (TED), is a form of diode, a two-terminal semiconductor
 electronic component, with negative resistance, used in high-
frequency electronics.
• It is based on the "Gunn effect" discovered in 1962 by physicist 
J. B. Gunn.
• Its largest use is in electronic oscillators to generate microwaves
, in applications such as radar speed guns, microwave relay data
link transmitters, and automatic door openers.
• A Gunn diode is a passive semiconductor device
with two terminals, which composes of only an n-
doped semiconductor material, unlike other diodes
which consist of a p-n junction.
• Gunn diodes can be made from the materials like
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Indium Phosphide (InP),
Gallium Nitride (GaN), Cadmium Telluride (CdTe),
Cadmium Sulfide (CdS), Indium Arsenide (InAs),
Indium Antimonide (InSb) and Zinc Selenide (ZnSe).
• Here, a lightly doped n-type semiconductor
layer is present between two heavily doped n-
type material.
• The middle portion is termed as an active
layer.
• The thickness of this region is around a few
microns to several hundred microns.
• When a voltage is applied to the device, then this
external potential appears across the active layer
thereby causing the flow of electrons present in that
region. This flow of majority carriers causes the
current to flow across the active region of the
device.
• Once the current pulse starts traversing inside the
active region, the potential at that region falls. Due
to which no further formation of the current pulse
occurs.
• But once the previously created current pulse reaches
the other end of the active region then the potential
again rises leading to the generation of another current
pulse.
• Thus, the frequency of operation of the device depends
on the time taken by the pulse to travel to another end,
resultantly on the rate of pulse generation.
• Unlike a normal junction diode, a Gunn diode consists
of 3 energy bands namely, valence band, conduction
band and an extra band above the conduction band.
• When a certain voltage is applied to the device
then electrons in the valence band starts
moving towards the conduction band thereby
allowing the flow of current.
• But when the voltage further increases then
instead of allowing a large flow of current the
electrons in the conduction band move
towards the energy band present above the
conduction band.
• Due to this the effect is known as the
transferred electron effect. This is so because
electrons are transferred from conduction
band to a higher energy state.
• At this particular state as the electrons are less
mobile hence current decreases with the
increase in voltage. Thereby, giving rise to a
negative resistance phenomenon where
current decreases with the increase in voltage.
• After a certain point of time when the applied
voltage increases further then the electrons in
the higher energy state gains sufficient energy
and moves back to the lower energy state.
Thus, further the current flowing through the
device increase with the increase in the
applied external potential.
• Here, we can clearly relate the above
explanation with the curve shown. Initially,
with the increase in the applied voltage, the
current through the device also increases.
• However, a point is reached when on
increasing the voltage the current through the
device starts decreasing. The point of
maximum current is known as the peak point.
• The region on the curve that shows the
decrease in current with an increase in voltage
is known as the negative resistance region of
the curve.
• The negative resistance characteristic is also
exhibited by a tunnel diode but the two show
variation in their operating manner.
The applications of a Gunn Diode include:
• In electronic oscillators to generate microwave frequencies.
• In parametric amplifiers as pump sources.
• In police radars.
• As sensors in door opening systems, trespass detecting systems, pedestrian
safety systems, etc.
• As a source for microwave frequencies in automatic door openers, traffic
signal controllers, etc.
• In microwave receiver circuits.
• In radio communications.
• In military systems.
The advantage of Gunn diodes include:
• lies in the fact that they are the cheapest
source of microwaves (compared to other
options such as klystron tubes)
• They are compact in size
• They operate over a large bandwidth and
possess high frequency stability.
The disadvantages of Gunn diodes include:
• They have a high turn-on voltage
• They are less efficient below 10 GHz
• They exhibit poor temperature stability.