EE 223: Water Resources and Transportation Engineering

Components of water supply system

 1: Source water intake

Source water intake

 The basic function of the intake structure is to
help in safely withdrawing water from the source
over predetermined pool levels and then to
discharge this water into the withdrawal conduit.
 1: Source of water intake

Factors governing location of source water intake

 Controlling device: The controlling device should be located at a place
which is accessible even during floods.

 Cost: Materials for constructing the source water intake should be

locally available e.g., stone masonry, brick masonry, concrete blocks,
reinforced concrete.

 Navigation channel: Intake should be never located near the navigation

channel to prevent pollution due to discharge of refuse and waste from
ships and boats.
 1: Source of water intake

Factors governing location of source water intake

 Permanency of supply: Intake should be located so as to ensure supply
of water even under the worst conditions and even to meet with the
future requirements.
 Quality of water: if surface level of water is varying, the openings at different
heights should be provided to draw off water. It is desirable to locate the intake
where polluted water does not get entry into it e.g., on the upstream side of
the town because such location will prevent the contamination of water by
sewage disposal of the town.
 1: Source of water intake

Factors Governing Location of Intake

 Situation: The situation of an intake should be selected that it is least
affected by floods, scouring, silting and storms. The site of intake should
be well connected by good approach roads and it should be free from the
attack of heavy currents

 Location: The intake must never be located at the downstream or in the

vicinity of the point of disposal of wastewater.
 1: Source of water intake

Factors governing location of source water intake

 Distance: As far as possible, the site should be near the treatment plant
so that the cost of conveying water to the city is less
 Accessibility: The intake site should remain easily accessible during
floods and should not get flooded. Moreover, the flood waters should
not be concentrated in the vicinity of the intake.
 Sedimentation: The intake should not be located at locations prone to
sedimentation
Source water intake….. cont’d
Source water intake
Source water intake
 Source water intake

Design of source water intake

The following factors are considered in the design of intakes:
-Factor of safety: Intake structure should effectively resist the external forces
caused by heavy waves and currents, ice pressures, impact of floating objectives
etc.
-Foundation: The foundations should be sufficient to withstand any damage may
be caused by the water current.
-Protection of sides: if the intake is situated in navigational channel, its sides
should be protected by a cluster of piles all around from the blows of moving
ships.
 Design of source water intake

Screens or strainers: The screens or strainers should be provided at the entry level
of an intake. The screens avoid the entry of floating matter and fish. The screens
may be of coarse type or fine type.
 The coarse screens usually consist of metallic rods placed about 25 to 30 mm
apart and they remove large objects.

 The fine screens usually consist of wire net having openings of size 6 mm x 6
mm or less and they remove small objects.
 Design of source water intake
Self weight: weight of intake structure should be good enough to grant its stability
and safety
Size and number of inlets: the size of inlets to an intake should be sufficient so
that the required quantity of water is allowed to enter. The number of inlets should
also be more so that the difficulty of drawing does not arise even if some of them
are blocked due to any reason.
 Type of water intake

The intakes are mainly of the following four types:

 Canal intake

 Reservoir or Lake intake

 River intake

 Portable intake
 2: Water transmission system
Introduction
 Water, whether it be drawn from
surface or ground supplies, must be
conveyed to the community and
distributed to the users.
 Conveyance from the source to the
point of treatment may be provided
by: -Pipelines
-Open channels
(a) Pipelines
 3: Water transmission

(b) Open channel

 The behavior of open channel flow is
governed basically by the effects of viscosity
and gravity relative to inertial forces of flow.

 In open channel, water is exposed to the

atmosphere and therefore there is considerable
loss of water due to evaporation,
percolation, etc. as well as chances of it being Open channel diagram
contaminated.
 3: Water transmission
 Uniform flow of water in open channel follows the energy equation between
section A to B.

V2A/2g
Energy line hL
Water surface
V2B/2g
yA
V
yB
A

Channel bottom
ZA B

ZB
Horizontal Datum

Length
ZA + yA + V2A/2g = ZB + yB + V2B/2g + HL
 3: Water transmission system
 The pressure conduits are in the form of pipes and they are adopted when
water is to be conveyed under pressure.
V21/2g EGL
hL
HGL
V22/2g
P1/ɣ

P2/ɣ
Center line
1
z1 2
z2
Datum

Energy line (EGL) – is a linear value (Nm/N) represents the energy at each section . It slopes
(drops) in the direction of flow except where energy is added by mechanical device like
pump
 3: Water transmission system
Total energy

• The energy in the flow of the section with reference to datum line is the sum of the

elevation z of the pipe-center line, the piezometer height (P1/ɣ) and the velocity head

(V2/2g).

• Energy equation (Bernoulli’s equation) between section 1 and 2

Z1 + P1/ɣ + V21/2g + Hp = Z2 + P2/ɣ + V22/2g + HL

Where: Z = Vertical distance above horizontal datum; P1/ɣ= Pressure head

V= Average velocity of flow; Hp = Energy head imparted to the water by the pump;
HL = total head loss between two sections 1 and 2
 3: Water transmission system
 Size of the conveying pipe depends on:
-Discharge through pipe
-Velocity of flow

 Equation
Q
Where
Q = Discharge through pipes
A = Cross section area of the pipe
V = Velocity flow in the pipe
3: Water transmission system
 The diameter of pipe determined using Darcy-
weisbach equation:

𝒇𝑳 𝑸𝟐
𝑯 𝑳= 𝟓
𝟏𝟐 . 𝟏 𝒅

Where: Q= discharge through pipe

f =coefficient of friction

L = Length of pipe
d = diameter of pipe

HL= head loss due to frictions

Drinking Water treatment plant
 Water treatment is the process of removing
contaminants (Physical, Chemical and Biological
contaminants) from raw water to produce water that
is pure enough for human consumption without any
short term or long term risk of any adverse health
effect.

 Its objective is to make water potable (safe

to drink) and palatable (aesthetically acceptable
for drinking)
Complete cycle of water COAGULATION
treatment process and
FLOCCULATION
SOURCE

SCREENING

STORAGE

SEDIMENTATION
DISINFECTION
FILTRATION

DISTRIBUTION
Typical layout of a water treatment plant
Screening
 Removes large suspended solids from the water.

Example
• Logs
• Stones
• Animals
• Plants

 Protects pumps and pipes

 Screening is done with the help of:

• Course screen
• Fine screen
Course screen
 Course screen available in the
form of bar of size 10mm to
25mm.
 Fine Screen
 Fine screen available in
the form of bar of size
10mm.
Coagulation and Flocculation
 What is Coagulation?

 Coagulation-Is the destabilization of colloids by addition of chemicals that

neutralize the negative charges by rapid mixing.

 The added chemicals are known as coagulants

 Coagulation is essentially a chemical process

Charge neutralization
Colloidal stability and interaction
Coagulation
Flocculation
Definition
 Flocculation is the agglomeration of
destabilized particles into a large size
particles known as flocs by slow
mixing which can be effectively
removed by sedimentation.
Sedimentation
WATER
FROM
Definition COAGULATION

Sedimentation: Is the process that removes

suspended particles from the water which could not
be removed in the screening process.

Sludge
WATER
TOWARDS
FILTRATION
Sedimentation tank for sludge removal
Sedimentation
• When water contains fine clay and colloidal impurities which are electrically charged are
continually in motion and never settle down due to gravitational force.
• Certain chemicals are added to the water so as to remove such impurities which are not
removed by plain sedimentation.
• The chemical form insoluble, gelatinous, flocculent precipitate absorbs and very fine
suspended matter and colloidal impurities during its formation and descent through water.
• These coagulants further have an advantage of removing colour, odour and taste from
the water.
• Turbidity of water reduced up to 5-10 ppm and bacteria removes up to 65%.
Sedimentation
• It the coagulation is to be adopted when turbidity of water exceeds about 40ppm

• Simply assists plain sedimentation and it is to be followed by the process of

filtration

• The purpose of coagulation is thus to make particles of bigger size by adding

certain chemicals known as coagulants

Principle of coagulation
 FLOC FORMATION
– When coagulants are dissolved in water and mixed with it they produce a thick
gelatinous precipitate (floc).
– The floc has got the property of arresting the suspended impurities in water during
downward travel towards the bottom of the tank
 ELECTRIC CHARGE
– The ions of floc are found to posses positive electric charge
– They will attract the negative charge colloidal particles of clay causing removal of such
particles from water
 Flocculation is used to denote the process of floc formation
Plain sedimentation
 Plain sedimentation: Is the process in which the suspended
particles are made to settle by gravity under still condition.
 Advantages plain sedimentation
• Plain sedimentation lightens the load on the subsequent

• The operation of subsequent purification process can be controlled

in better way

• The cost of cleaning the chemical coagulation basins is reduced

• No chemical is lost with sludge discharged from the plain settling

Sedimentation cont’d
 The amount of matter removed by sedimentation tank depends upon the
factors.
• Velocity of flow
• Size and shape of particles
• Viscosity of water
Filtration, Disinfection and Storage

DISINFECTION: A small amount of STORAGE: Water is placed in a closed tank or

chlorine is added or some other reservoir for disinfection to take pace. The
WATER
FROM disinfection method is used to water then flows through pipes to home and
SEDIMENTATION
kill microorganisms that may be business in the community
in the water.

FILTRATION: The water passes through filters, some made of

layers of sand, and charcoal that help remove smaller
particles.
Filtration
 Filtration: It is carried out to remove
fine suspended particles in the water.
 Filtration also remove:
• Organic matter
• Micro organism
• Minerals from the water
Theory of Filtration
 Forms the most important stage in the purification of water with the following effects;
• Suspended and colloidal impurities are removed
• Chemical characteristic of water is altered
• The number of bacteria are reduced considerably
 Four actions for the effect:
• Mechanical straining
• Sedimentation
• Biological metabolism
• Electrolytic changes
 Theory of Filtration
 Mechanical straining –Mechanical straining of suspended particles in the sand
pores.

 Sedimentation –Absorption of colloidal and dissolved inorganic matter in the surface

of sand grains in a thin film

 Electrolytic action –The electrolytic charges on the surface of the sand particles,
which opposite to that of charges of the impurities are responsible for binding them to
sand particles.

 Biological Action –Biological action due to the development of a film of

microorganisms layer on the top of filter media, which absorb organic impurities.
Filtration
Typical multimedia of sand filter
 Three common types of filters:
 Slow sand filter
 Rapid sand filter
 Pressure filters
Construction details of sand filter
Construction details of sand filter
Filter sand operation
Filter sand operation
Slow Sand Filter (SSF)
 Slow sand filters are best suited for the
filtration of water for small towns.
 The sand used for the filtration is
specified by the effective size and
uniformity coefficient .
 The effective size, D10, which is the sieve
in millimeters that permits 10% sand by
weight to pass.
 The uniformity coefficient is calculated
by the ratio of D60 and D10.
Construction of Slow Sand Filter (SSF)

• Slow sand filter is made up of a top layer of fine sand of effective size 0.2. to 0.3mm and
uniformity coefficient 2 to 3.

• The thickness of the layer may be 75 to 90 cm.

• Below the fine sand layer, a layer of coarse sand of such size whose voids do not permit the fine
sand to pass through it. The thickness of this layer may be 30cm.
• The lowermost layer is a graded gravel of size 2 to 45mm and thickness is about 20 to 30cm.
• The gravel is laid in layers such that the smallest sizes are at the top. The gravel layer is the
retains for the coarse sand layer and is laid over the network of open jointed clay pipe or concrete
pipes called under drainage.
• Water collected by the under drainage is passed into the out chamber
Operation of Slow Sand Filter
• The water from sedimentation tanks enters the slow sand filter through a
submersible inlet. This water is uniformly spread over a sand bed without
causing any disturbances.
• The water passes through the filter media at an average rate of 2.4 to 3.6
m3/m2/day. This rate of filtration is continued until the difference between
the water level on the filter and in the inlet chamber is slightly less than the
depth of water above the sand. The difference of water above the sand bed
and in the outlet chamber is called the loss of head
Operation of Slow Sand Filter
• During filtration as the filter media gets clogged due to the impurities, which stay in the
pores, the resistance to the passage of water and loss of head also increases.

• When the loss of head reaches 60cm, filtration is stopped and about 2 to 3 cm from the top
of bed is scrapped and replaced with clean sand before putting back into service to the
filter.

• The scrapped sand is washed with the water, dried and stored for return to the filter at the
time of the next washing . The filter can run for 6 to 8 weeks before it becomes necessary
Uses of Slow Sand Filter
• The slow sand filters are effective in removal of 98 to 99% of bacteria of raw
water and completely all suspended impurities and turbidity is reduced to 1
N.T.U.
• Slow sand filters also removes odours, tastes and colours from the water but not
pathogenic bacteria which requires disinfection to safeguard against water-borne
diseases.
• The slow sand filters requires large area for their construction and high initial
cost for establishment.
• The rate of filtration is also very slow
Rapid Sand Filter
Rapid sand filter are
replacing the slow sand
filters because of high
rate of infiltration
ranging from 100 to
150m3/m2/day and
small area of filter
required.
Main features of Rapid Sand Filter (RSF)
• Effective size of sand - 0.45 to 0.70mm
• Uniformity coefficient of sand - 1.3 to 1.7
• Depth of sand - 60 to 75cm
• Filter gravel - 2 to 50mm size (Increase size towards bottom)
• Depth of gravel - 45cm
• Depth of water over sand during filtration - 1 to 2m
• Overall depth of filter including 0.5m free board - 2.6m
• Area of single filter unit - 100m2 in two parts of each 50m2
• Loss of head - Max 1.8 to 2.0m
• Turbidity of filtered water - 1 NTU
Comparison between Slow sand filter and Rapid Sand Filter
Pressure Filter

Pressure filter is type of

rapid sand filter in a

closed water tight cylinder

through which the water

passes through the sand

bed under pressure.

 Pressure filter operation
• All the operations of the filter is similar to
rapid sand filter, expect that the
coagulated water is directly applied to
the filter without mixing and
flocculation.
• These filters are used for industrial plants
but these are not economical on large
scale.
• Pressure filters may be vertical pressure
filter and horizontal pressure filter.
 Advantage and disadvantage of Pressure Filter
Advantage
 It is a compact and automatic operation
 These are ideal for small estates and small water
works
 These filters requires small area for installation
 Small number of fittings are required in these
filters
 Filtered water comes out under pressure no further
pumping is required.
 No sedimentation and coagulant tanks are required
Disadvantage
 Proper quality control and inspection is not
possible because of closed tank.
 The efficiency of removal of bacteria &
turbidity is poor.
 Change of filter media, gravel and repair of
drainage system is difficult.
 Due to heavy cost on treatment , they cannot
be used for treatment large quantity of water at
water works.
Water disinfection
Purpose of disinfection
-To make Drinking water free of any disease causing bacteria and microbes.

Methods of disinfection
-There are 3 mainly used disinfection methods at large scale.

• Chlorination
• Ozonation
• Ultraviolet radiation
Chlorination
• Chlorine is the most common cost-effective means of
disinfecting water in the U.S.

• The addition of a small amount of chlorine is highly

effective against most bacteria, viruses, and
protozoa.

• Chlorine is applied to water in one of three forms:

elemental chlorine (chlorine gas), sodium hypochlorite
solution (bleach), or dry calcium hypochlorite. All
three forms produce free chlorine in water
Chlorination
• First large-scale chlorination was in 1908 at the Boonton Reservoir of the Jersey City Water
Works in the United States

• Widely used in the US

• Typical dosage (1-5 mg/L)

• Variable, based on the chlorine demand

• Goal of 0.2 mg/L residual

• Trihalomethanes (EPA primary standard is 0.08 mg/L)

Ozonation
• OZONE is Strongest oxidant/disinfectant available.

• More effective against microbes than chlorination.

• But, costly and difficult to monitor and control under

different condition.

Ozonation process: Ozone (O3) is generated on-site at water

treatment facilities by passing dry oxygen or air through a
system of high voltage electrodes.
 Ultraviolet Radiation
 When UV radiation penetrates the cell wall of an
organism, it damages genetic material, and prevents the
cell from reproducing.

 Now a days emerging technology made UV radiation

to find a place in both household and large scale
drinking water disinfection.

How is UV light generated?

 Ultraviolet light is most typically generated from a low pressure or a medium pressure
lamp generating UV light.
Ultraviolet Radiation
 4: Storage water

Storage of Water
• The storage of water is necessary to supplement the deficit of water.
This may result from scheduled pumping, insufficient water sources and
variation of consumption.

• There are three main points to be considered when deciding for a storage
 Type
 Location and
 Volume
 Storage of water

Storage of Water
o Whether the water is supplied by gravity or pumping always some
storage should be provided for in the distribution systems for the following
reasons.
 To cater for the hourly variations within the rate of
consumption
 To maintain adequate pressure in all parts of the distribution
system
 To provide possibilities of repairing the rising main (source and
reservoir) without curtailing the consumer’s system
 Storage of Water

Reason cont’d

 To produce some buffer capacity for emergencies, in urban areas

especially for fire fighting draft

 To maintain a uniform operation of pumps throughout the day which

implies smaller pumps than otherwise

 To cut down the feeder diameter (source to storage tank) therefore

saving some funds. If consumers were fed directly from a source the
feeder diameter would have to be greater than having a storage
tank
 Storage of water
Water storage
Type of storage reservoir
(i) Surface reservoirs
-Depend on the topography

(ii) Elevated tanks (reservoirs)

The elevation of the tank is based on the pressure requirement for the supply
system.
The construction material is based on the capacity of the tank
Small size - Concrete is preferred
Large size - Steel is preferred because of weight
 Storage of Water
(a) Surface reservoir
 Storage of Water
(b) Elevated tanks
 Introduction
 After treatment, water is to be stored temporarily and supplied to the
consumers through the network of pipelines called distribution system.

 The purpose of distribution system is to deliver water to the consumers with

appropriate quality, quantity and pressure

 The cost of distribution is about 40 to 70% of the total cost of the entire
scheme.
 Requirement of distribution system
 Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution pipes

 It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places with

sufficient pressure

 It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water during fire

fighting
 Requirement distribution system
 The layout should be such that no consumer would be without water supply,
during the repair of any section of the system

 All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one meter away or
above the sever line

 It should be fairly water tight as to keep losses due to leakage to the

minimum
 Methods of water distribution
 For efficient distribution system adequate water pressure required at
various point.
 Depending upon the level of source, Topography of the area and other local
conditions the water may be forces into distribution system by following
methods:
• Gravity system
• Pumping system
• Combined gravity and pumping system
Gravity system
• Suitable when source of supply is at
sufficient height
• Most reliable and economical
distribution system
• The water head available at the
consumer is just minimum
• The remaining head is consumed in
the frictional and other losses
Pumping system

Constant pressure can be
maintained in the system by
direct pumping into mains.

High lifts pumps are required

Supply can be effected during
power failure and breakdown of
pumps.

This method is not generally used
Pumping system
 Combined gravity and Pumping system
• This is also known as dual system.
• Treated water is pumped and stored in an elevated distribution reservoir
• Then supply to the consumer by action of gravity
• This system is more reliable, efficient and economical, because it
requires uniform rate of pumping but meets low as well as maximum
demand.
• The water stored in the elevated reservoir meets the requirements of
demand during breakdown of pumps and for fire fighting.
Combined gravity and Pumping system
Combined gravity and Pumping system
 Layout distribution network
 The distribution pipes
are generally laid
below the road
pavements, and such
their layouts generally
follow the layout of
roads
Method of layouts distribution pipe network
 Four method
 Dead end system
 Radial system
 Grid Iron system
 Ring system
Dead end system
 This system is suitable for
irregular developed towns or
cities. In this system water flows
in one direction only into
submains and branches.

 The diameter of pipe decreases

at every tree branch.
 Advantage of dead end system
• Discharge and pressure at any point in the distribution system is calculated easily

• The valves required in this system of layout are comparatively less in number

• The diameter of pipes used are smaller and hence the system is cheap and
economical

• The laying of water pipes used are simple

 Disadvantage of Dead end system
 There is stagnant water at dead
ends of pipes causing
contamination

 During repairs of pipes or valves

at any point the entire down
stream end are deprived of
supply
Grid iron system
 From the mains water enters the
branches at all Junctions in
either directions into submains
of equal diameters.

 At any point in the line the

pressure is balanced from two
directions because of
interconnected network of
pipes
Advantage of Grid iron system
 In the case of repairs a very small portion
of distribution are a will be affected

 Every point receives supply at least from

two directions and with higher pressure

 Additional water from the other branches

are available for fire fighting

 There is free circulation of water and

hence it is not liable for pollution due to
stagnation.
Disadvantage of Grid iron system
 More length of pipes and number
of valves are needed and hence there
is increased cost of construction

 Calculation of sizes of pipes and

working out pressures at various
points in the distribution system is
complicated and difficult
Circular or ring system
 Supply to the inner pipes is
from the mains around the
boundary.

 The advantages and

disadvantages are same as
that of grid-Iron system
Circular or ring system
 Radial system
 The area divided into zones system.

 Water is pumped to the distribution reservoirs

and from the reservoirs it flows by gravity to the
dead system of pipes

 The supply pipes are laid rapidly ending

towards the periphery

 This is most economical system also if

combined pumping and gravity flow is
adopted
 Pipes Materials
 Pipes convey raw water from the source to
the treatment plants in the distribution
system. Water is under pressure always
and hence the pipe material and the fixture
should withstand stresses due to the
internal and external pressure, and
temperature stresses
 Requirement of pipe materials
 It should be capable of with standing internal
and external pressures
 It should have facility of easy joints
 It should be available in all sizes, transport

and erection should be easy.

 It should be durable
 It should not react with water to alter its quality
 Cost of pipes should be less
 Frictional head loss should be minimum
 The damaged units should be replaced easily.
 Pipe network analysis
 Pipe network analysis involves the
determination of the pipe flow rates and
pressure heads at the outflows points of the
network.

Pipe network.
 The flow rates and pressure heads must
satisfy the continuity and energy equation
 ANALYSIS METHODS
 Pipe network analysis methods include:-
o Hardy-Cross Method (Looped
Method)
o Nodal Method
o Newton –Raphson Method

 The widely used method of pipe network

analysis is the Hardy-Cross Method
Pipe network distribution
 Hardy Cross Method
o The Hardy Cross method is an iterative method for determining the flow in pipe
network systems where the inputs and outputs are known, but the flow inside the
network is unknown
o This method is applicable to system in which pipes form closed loops. The outflows
from the system are generally assumed to occur at the nodes junction.
o For a given pipe system with Known outflows the Hardy cross Method is an iterative
procedure based on initially iterated flows in the pipes.
o At each junction these flows must satisfy the continuity criterion i.e the algebraic sum
of the flow rate in the pipe meeting at a junction, together with any external flows is
zero.
 Hardy Cross Method assumptions
 The Hardy Cross method assume that the flow going in and out of the system is
known and that the pipe length, diameter, roughness and other key
characteristics are also known or can be assumed.

 The method also assumes that the relation between flow rate and head loss is
known.

 In the case of water flow through pipes, a number of methods have been developed
to determine the relationship between head loss and flow.

 The Hardy Cross method allows for any of these relationships to be used
Hardy Cross Method principles
 Hardy Cross Method (Derivation)
HL But,

Binomial expansion
Hardy Cross Method (Derivation)
 Head loss calculation
 The general relationship between head loss (HL) and flow rate (Q)

HL
 Where K is the head loss per unit flow and n is the flow exponent.

 In most design situations the values that make up K, such as pipe length, diameter and
roughness are taken to be Known or assumed and the value of K can be determined for each
pipe in the network.

 The values that make up K and the value of n change depending on the relation used to
determine head loss.


 Head loss equations
 Commonly used friction loss methods include:-
o Darcy-Weibach Equation
o Hazen-Williams equation
o Chezy’s Equation
o Kutter’s Equation
o Manning’s Equation
Head loss equation
Hardy-Cross Method (Procedure)
Tutorials 1