BASIC GRAMMAR

ARTICLES
PARTS OF SPEECH
PHRASE, CLAUSE AND SENTENCE
STRUCTURE OF SENTENCE
ARTICLES
 The words a or an and the are called Articles. They come before nouns.
 There are two Articles - a (or an) and the.
 A or An is called the Indefinite Article, because it usually leaves
indefinite the person or thing spoken of; as, A doctor; that is, any doctor.
 The is called the Definite Article, because it normally points out some
particular person or thing; as, He saw the doctor; meaning some
particular doctor.
 The indefinite article (A or An) is used before singular countable nouns,
e.g. A book, a boy.
 The definite article (The) is used before singular countable nouns,
plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns, e.g., The book, the
books, the milk.
A or An
 The choice between A and An is determined by sound. Before a
word beginning with a vowel sound an is used; as, an enemy, an
ink-pad, an orange, an umbrella, an hour, an honest man.
 It will be noticed that the words hour, honest, heir begin with a
vowel sound, as the initial consonant “h” is not pronounced,
 Before a word beginning with a consonant sound A is used; as, a
boy, a reindeer, a woman, a yard, a horse, a hole, a university, a
union, a European.
 The words (university, union, European etc.) begin with a
consonant sound, that of “yu”. Similarly we say, A one-rupee
note, such a one, a one-eyed man because the word one begins
with the consonant sound of “w”.
Use of Definite Article, THE
 The Definite Article the is used;
1. When we talk about a particular person or thing, or one
already referred to as, The book you want is out of
print. (The one book that you want)
2. When a singular noun is meant to represent a whole
class; as, The cow is a useful animal.
3. Before the names of certain books; as,The Qura’an,
the Shahnamah, the Iliad.
4. Before names of things unique of their kind; as, The
sun, the sky, the ocean, the sea, the earth.
…contd
5. Before some proper names, viz., these kinds of place-names:
a) oceans and seas, e.g. the Pacific, the Black Sea
b) rivers, e.g. the Indus, the Nile
c) canals, e.g. the Kacchhi Canal
d) deserts, e.g. the Sahara, the Thar
e) groups of islands, e.g. the West Indies
f) mountain-ranges, e.g. the Himalayas, the Alps
g) a very few names of countries, which include words like
republic and kingdom (e.g. the Irish Republic, the United
Kingdom, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia) also: the Ukraine, the
Netherlands (and its seat of government the Hague)
…contd
6. With Superlatives; as, The darkest cloud has a silver
lining.
7. Before musical instruments; as, He can play the flute.
8. Before a noun (with emphasis) to give the force of a
Superlative; as, The Verb is the word (= the chief
word) in a sentence.
9. Before an adjective when the noun is understood; as,
The poor are always with us.
10. As an Adverb with Comparatives; as, The more the
merrier.
Use of Indefinite Article, A and An
 The Indefinite Article is used-
1. In its original numerical sense of one; as,
 Twelve inches make a foot.
 Not a word was said.
2. In the sense of any, to single out an individual as the
representative of a class; as,
 A pupil should obey his teacher.
 A cow is a useful animal.
3. To make a common noun of a proper noun; as,
 A Socrates of his times! (A Socrates = a very wise man)
Omission of Articles
 The Article is omitted-
1. Before names of substances and abstract nouns (i.e. uncountable nouns)
used in a general sense; as,
Sugar is bad for your teeth.
Gold is a precious metal.
Wisdom is the gift of heaven.
2. Before plural countable nouns used in a general sense; as,
Children like chocolates.
Computers are used in many offices.
3. Before names of meals (used in a general sense); as,
What time do you have lunch?
Dinner is ready.
NOUNS
 Nouns are most often the names of people or things.
Personal names (e.g Jamil, Ayesha) are called proper
nouns. Nouns are usually preceded by an article however
Personal Nouns are usually written without articles.
 Kinds
There are four kinds of noun in English:
1. Common nouns: dog. man, table
2. Proper nouns: Attock, Punjab, Mr Ali, Tom
3. Abstract nouns: beauty, courage, fear
4. Collective nouns: crowd, flock, group, swarm, team
…contd
 Function
There are several functions of a noun;
1. The subject of a verb: Riaz arrived.
2. The complement of the verbs be, become, seem:
Riaz is a business manager.
3. The object of a verb: I saw Riaz.
4. The object of a preposition: I spoke to Riaz.
5. A noun can also be in the possessive case: Riaz's
books.
…contd
 Uncountable nouns (also known as non-count nouns or
mass nouns)
1. Names of substances considered generally:
Bread, cream, gold, paper, tea, dust, ice, sand, cloth, jam,
soap, coffee, glass, oil, stone, wood
2. Abstract nouns:
Advice, experience, horror, pity, beauty, fear, information,
relief, courage, help, knowledge, suspicion
3. Also considered uncountable in English:
Baggage, damage, luggage, shopping, camping, furniture,
parking, weather
PRONOUNS
 A word that is used in place of a Noun is called Pronoun.
 KINDS
 Personal Pronouns
I am young.
We are young.
You are young.
They are young.
He (she, it) is young.
I, we, you, he, (she, it), they are called Personal Pronouns because they
stand for the three persons.
i. the person speaking.
ii. the person spoken to, and
iii. the person spoken of.
…contd
 Reflexive Pronouns
I hurt myself.
We hurt ourselves.
You will hurt yourself.
You hurt yourselves.
When -self is added to my, your, him, her, it, and -selves
tour, your, them, we get what are called Compound
Personal Pronouns. They are called Reflexive Pronouns
when the action done by the subject turns back
(reflects) upon the subject; as,
…contd
 Emphatic Pronouns
I will do it myself.
I myself saw him do it.
We will see to it ourselves.
You yourself can best explain.
He himself said so.
It will be seen that here Compound Personal Pronouns
are used for the sake of emphasis, and are therefore
called Emphatic Pronouns.
…contd
 Demonstrative Pronouns
This book is mine.
That pen is yours.
These books are mine.
Those pens are yours?
It will be noticed that the Pronouns in italics are used to
point out the objects to which they refer, and are,
therefore, called Demonstrative Pronouns. (Latin
demonstrate, to show clearly).
…contd
 Indefinite Pronouns
All were drowned.
Some are born great.
Some say he is a sharper.
Somebody has stolen my watch.
All these Pronouns in italics refer to persons or things in
a general way, but do not refer to any person or thing
in particular. They are, therefore, called Indefinite
Pronouns.
…contd
 Distributive Pronouns
Each of the boys gets a prize.
Each took it in turn.
Either of these roads leads to the railway station.
Either of you can go.
Neither of the accusations is true.
Each, either, neither are called Distributive Pronouns
because they refer to persons or things one at a time.
For this reason they are always singular and as such
followed by the verb in the singular.
PREPOSITIONS
 A Preposition is a word placed before a noun or a
pronoun to show in what relation the person or thing
denoted by it stands in regard to something else. The
Noun or Pronoun which is used with a Preposition is
called its Object. A preposition serves to connect its
subject with the rest of the sentence. For example ;
1. I am sick of you.
2. I am fell off the bed.
3. Wait a minute.
4. Here is the book that you asked for.
CONJUNCTIONS
 A Conjunction is a word which merely joins together
sentences, and sometimes words. Conjunctions join
together sentences and often make them more compact;
thus, ‘Waqar and Aslam are good bowlers is a short way
of saying ‘Waqar is a good bowler and Aslam is a good
bowler’.
 Conjunctions merely join: They do no other work.
Observe that a Preposition also joins two words but it
does more; it governs a noun or pronoun; as,
He sat beside Aslam.
He stood behind me.
…contd
 We use many compound expressions as Conjunctions; these are
called Compound Conjunctions.
In order that -- The notice was published in order that all might
know the facts.
On condition that -- I will forgive you on condition that you do
not repeat the offence.
Even if -- Such an act would not be kind even if it were just.
So that -- He saved some bread so that he should not go hungry
on the morrow.
Provided that -- You can borrow the book provided that you
return it soon.
As through -- He walks as though he is slightly lame.
PHRASE
 Examine the group of words “in a corner”. It makes
sense, but not complete sense. Such a group of words,
which makes sense, but not complete sense, is called a
Phrase. In the following sentences, the groups of
words in italics are Phrases:
The sun rises in the east.
Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall.
There came a giant to my door.
CLAUSE
 Examine the groups of words in italics in the following
sentences:
He has a chain of gold.
He has a chain which is made of gold.
We recognize the first group of words as a Phrase. The
second group of words, unlike the Phrase of gold,
contains a Subject (which) and a Predicate (is made of
gold). Such a group of words which forms part of a
sentence, and contains a Subject and a Predicate, is
called a Clause.
THE SENTENCE
When we speak or write we use words. We
generally use these words in groups; as,
I met the old man at a tea stall.
A group of words like this, which makes
complete sense, is called a Sentence.
PARTS OF A SENTENCE
 When we make a sentence:
1. We name some person or thing; and
2. Say something about that person or thing.
 Hence every sentence has two parts:
1. The part which names the person or thing we are speaking about.
This is called the Subject of the sentence.
2. The part which tells something about the Subject. This is called the
Predicate of the sentence.
 The Subject of a sentence usually comes first, but occasionally it is
put after the Predicate; as, Here comes the bus.
 In Imperative sentences the Subject is left out; as, Sit down. (Here the
Subject You is understood)
KINDS OF SENTENCES
1. A sentence that makes a statement or assertion is called a Declarative

or Assertive sentence i.e. Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall.

2. A sentence that asks a question is called an Interrogative sentence i.e.

Where do you live?

3. A sentence that expresses a command or an entreaty is called an

Imperative sentence i.e. Be quiet.

4. A sentence that expresses strong feeling is called an Exclamatory

sentence i.e. How cold the night is!