RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY
UNIT 1
MEANING
⚫Research refers to a search for knowledge.

⚫ Research is an art of scientific investigation.

⚫Research refers to Gain of Knowledge

Definition
⚫Redman and Mory define research as a,”Systematized
effort to gain new knowledge”.

⚫According t Clifford woody, research comprises

defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions collecting,
organising and evaluating data, making deductions
and reaching conclusions; to determine whether they
fit the formulating hypothesis.
Objectives Of Research
⚫1. To gain familiarity with new insights into a
phenomenon (i.e., formulative research studies);
⚫2. To accurately portray the characteristics of a
particular individual, group, or a situation (i.e.,
descriptive research studies);
⚫3. To analyse the frequency with which something
occurs (i.e., diagnostic research studies); and
⚫4. To examine the hypothesis of a causal relationship
between two variables (i.e., hypothesis-testing
research studies).
Types of Research
1. Exploratory Research
2. Descriptive Research
3. Applied Research
4. Pure/Fundamental/Basic Research
5. Conceptual Resarch
6. Causal Research
7. Historical Research
8. Ex-post Facto Research
9. Action Research
10. Evaluation Research
11. Library Research
Research Process:
(1)Formulating the research problem;
(2) Extensive literature survey;
(3) Developing hypothesis;
(4) Preparing the research design;
(5) Determining sample design;
(6) Collecting data;
(7) Analysis of data;
(8) Hypothesis testing;
(9) Generalization and interpretation, and
(10) Preparation of the report or presentation of the results.
Problem Definition
⚫Describe broader context (background)
⚫State the objectives or purposes
⚫Inform reader about the scope of the study,
including defining any terms, limitations, or
restrictions
⚫Reduces potential criticisms

⚫State the hypothesis (es)

Literature Review
⚫Gives theoretical rationale of problem being studied,
what research has been done and how it relates to the
problem
⚫Helpful to divide the literature into sub-topics for ease of
reading

⚫Quality of literature should be assessed

⚫Be sure to include well respected ‘individuals’ in the

research area (if they exist)
Hypotheses
⚫ An hypothesis is a testable statement about the empirical relationship
between an independent variable and a dependent variable.
⚫ An hypothesis tells us how different values of a dependent variable should
be related to values of an independent variable.
⚫ Examples:
⚫ Explanation: Support for gun regulation is a function of partisanship.
⚫ Hypothesis: Support for concealed weapons on college campuses
should be higher among Republicans than among Democrats.
⚫ Explanation: Voter turnout is a function of voter demographics
⚫ Hypothesis: Voter turnout should be higher among older people than
it is among younger people.
⚫ Hypothesis: Voter turnout should be higher among better educated
people than among lower educated people.
⚫ Hypothesis: Voter turnout should be higher among people with high
incomes than among people with low incomes.
Selection of Research Design
⚫The research design indicates the steps that will
need to be take and the sequence they will occur
⚫Each design can rely on one ore more data
collection technique
⚫Assess reliability and validity
⚫Critical consideration in determining
methodology is the selection of subjects
Data Gathering
⚫Must pretest

⚫Design the sampling scheme

⚫Questionnaires must be coded

Data processing and analysis
⚫ Describe demographics of the data

⚫ Compare behavior (if applicable)

⚫ Choose appropriate statistical technique (if applicable)

⚫ Look for patterns in data (if applicable)

Interpreting the Results
⚫Make sure to consider the audience

⚫Discuss implications for the population of interest and

future research
Operational Definitions
⚫Variables first defined by conceptual definitions
that explain the concept the variable is trying to
capture

⚫Variables then defined by operational definitions

which are definitions for how variable will be
measured
Language of Sampling
⚫ Population: entire collection of people/things
⚫ Parameter: # that results from measuring all units in
population
⚫ Sampling frame: specific data from which sample is drawn
⚫ Unit of analysis: type of object of interest
⚫ Sample: a subset of some of the units in the population
⚫ Statistic: # that results from measuring all units in the
sample
Unit of Analysis
⚫Major entity you are analyzing in your study

⚫It is the type of object that makes up each data point

⚫Individuals
⚫Artifacts (books, photos, newspapers)
⚫Geographical units
⚫Social interactions
Unit of Analysis Error
⚫In some studies people are allocated in groups, rather
than individually. When this is done, the unit of
allocation is different from the unit of analysis
(usually).
⚫This is sometimes called a unit of analysis error.

⚫It can result in studies having narrower confidence

intervals and receiving more weight than is appropriate.