Vitamins

Laxman Bharati
MMC
 Introduction
• Term vitamin - to describe certain organic compounds that
are needed by the body but that cannot be manufactured by
the body.
• Mainly serve as catalysts for reactions in the body.
• The amounts required is very small (minute) for
metabolism, for protection, for maintenance of health and
proper growth.
• Are not synthesized by the host in adequate amounts so are
mainly obtained from foods.
 Cont.
• Distinct from fats, carbohydrates, and proteins.

• Also assist in the formation of hormones, blood vessels,

nervous system chemicals and genetic materials.

• Chemically vitamins are alcohols, aldehydes, organic

acids, their derivatives and nucleotide derivatives.
 Classification
• Based on solubility, Vitamins are classified - fat-soluble (lipid
soluble) or water-soluble.
• Fat-soluble - Vitamins A, D, E and K .
 hydrophobic compounds and not excreted out of the body.
Bile salts and fats are needed for absorption.
Carried in blood with transporters ie chylomicrons.
Stored in liver and body fat and can become toxic if large amounts
are consumed.
 Cont.
• Water soluble - Vitamin C and B.
Absorbed directly into the blood stream.
Are not stored in the body - are required daily in small amounts.
toxicity is rare.
Cont.
Source of vitamins
 Vitamin А
Two forms in the human diet- Preformed vitamin A and provitamin A.
Vitamin A from animal sources (Preformed)
• Three preformed compounds called retinoids that are metabolically
active and found in animal products.
• retinol – alcohol form (can be converted to other forms)
• retinal or retinaldehyde – aldehyde form (essential in vision)
• retinoic acid – acid form (for skin and bone growth).

Vitamin A from plant sources (Provitamin A)

• Carotenoids (b-carotene) and cryptoxanthin can yield retinoids
when metabolized in the body.
• From plant sources .
• Normal diet- Half Vit A as retinol ester and half from carotenoids
 Cont
• One molecule of b-carotene can be cleaved into two molecules
of retinal in the intestine
• Retinyl ester from diet is convert into retinol by removing a
fatty acid.
• Retinol and B-carotene move into intestinal epithelial cells -
converted to retinol - then re-esterified to make retinyl
esters .
• Secreted as a component of chylomicrons into the blood.
• once chylomicron reaches the liver it gets converted to all-
trans retinol, & then converted into retinyl palmitate ( retinyl
ester)- stored in liver.
• when tissues need vit A its transported from liver to blood as
retinol by RBP2 .
 Physiological role and actions
Role in Vision-
• Discovered by George Ward in 1967 .
• Required for the maintenance of normal vision, deficiency lead to
visual disturbances.
• In the retina, retinol is converted - 11-cis-retinal and 11-cis-retinal
is bound to the protein opsin to form rhodopsin in rod cells and
iodopsin in cone cells.
• Rhodopsin and iodopsin – light sensitive pigments.
•  Photoreceptor cells involved in vision, absorb photons, triggering
a change in the cell's membrane potential.
• Rods deal with low light level and do not mediate color vision but
cones code the color of an image.
• In light vitamin A isomerizes from its bent ‘cis’ form to a straighter
‘trans’ form and detaches from opsin - opsin molecule changes shape
- sends a signal to the brain via optic nerve and an image is formed.

• 1.lecithin retinol acyl transferase, 2. Retinal pigment epithelium-

specific 65 kDa protein ( retinoid isomerohydrolase) 3.  retinol
dehydrogenase 5. trans -retinal dehydrogenase.
 Cont.
Epithelial tissue-
• Promote differentation and maintains structural integrity of
epithelium.
• Promotes mucus secretion, inhibit keratinization and improve
resistance to infection.
• Deficiency- Epithelial structural changes. Skin-dry, rough & scaly.
• Cornea- epithilium keratinised, opaque .
• Lacrimal glands- changes leading to dryness of conjunctiva &
cornea(xerophthalmia).
• Respiratory tract –keratinzation- susceptibility to infection.
 Cont.
Immune system
• Required for proper antibody response, normal lymphocytes proliferation and
killer cell function.
• Deficiency- Increase susceptibility to infection.

Reproduction
• Maintenance of spermatogenesis and foetal development
• Deficient male-ill developed testes, immature sperms.
• Deficient female-unable to carry pregnancy to full term.

• Stimulates the synthesis of proteins (especially in cartilages).

• Stimulates the synthesis of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides.
• Participates in oxidation-reduction reactions.

.
 Deficiency Symptoms
• Night blindness,
• Xerophthalmia (keratin deposits in cornea), macular degeneration.
• Skin and mucous membrane dryness, keratin deposits.
• Decreased resistance to infections
• Growth retardation
• Developmental defects – bones, teeth, immune system, vision

Recommended Daily
• Men 5000 I.U. Women 4000 I.U.
• Children 2000 – 3500 I.U. s of Retinol
 Vitamin D
• Fat-soluble vitamin exists in two forms –
• Vitamin D3 (Cholecalciferol) - naturally produced in human
skin epidermis upon exposure to ultraviolet-B (UVB) radiation
from sunlight.
• Vitamin D2 (Ergocalciferol) - consumed through the regular
dietary intake.
• Active vitamin D functions - to maintain serum calcium and
phosphorus concentrations within the normal range by
enhancing the efficiency of the small intestine to absorb.
• Consider as hormone – synthesized by skin, transported by
blood, activated and then act on receptors in tissue.
• Feedback regulation by plasma calcium level and active Vit D.
 Cont.
Deficiencies
• Rickets characterized by reduced growth and softening of
bone.
• Osteomalacia, similar to rickets -usually in elderly.
• Osteoporosis - most common in elderly ( bone density
reduces becomes more porous in nature and causing
increased risk of broken bone and fractures).
• Prone to infections, reduce wound healing, cause fatigue and
weakness.

• Daily requirement: 12-25 micrograms

Activation of Vitamin D
 Actions
• Stimulates intestinal absorption of calcium and phosphate
and mobilises calcium and phosphate by stimulating bone
resorption .
• Serve to restore blood levels of calcium and phosphate to
normal when its low.
• Enhances transcription of mRNAs which code for
calcium-transporting proteins, bone matrix proteins.
• Enhance tubular reabsorption of calcium and phosphate.
• Immune system- Promotes phagocytosis, immuno
modulatory activity and induces differentiation of
immune cells.
 Vitamin E
• 8 fat soluble compounds comprising - 4 tocopherols and 4
tocotrienols.
• Each is further subdivided into α, β, γ and δ classes.
• ‘α tocopherol’ - highest biological activity and the most
abundant in the body.
• Main role - act as an antioxidant- scavenging free radicals.
• Free radical - very reactive atoms or molecules, typically
possess a single unpaired electron, formed in the body during
normal metabolism and also upon exposure to environmental
factors such as cigarette smoke, stress, alcohol, lack of sleep,
poor diet, or pollutants.
 Cont.
• Free radicals cause destruction by trying to remove electrons
from other molecules so they will have a matched pair-
destruction is oxidation.

• Deficiency is rare except in pregnancy and the new born,

where it is associated with hemolytic anaemia.

• Daily requirement: 20-50 mg

 Actions
• Functions as an antioxidant- protecting cells, tissues, and
organs from damaging effects caused by ‘free radicals’,
which are responsible for the aging process.

• Prevent the oxidation of vitamin A, DNA, unsaturated fatty

acids and phospholipids of the cell membrane.
 Vitamin K
• Only fat soluble vitamin with a specific coenzyme function.
• Required for the production of blood clotting factors,
essential for coagulation.
• Chemistry- exists in different forms
• Vitamin - K1 , Vitamin - K2, Vitamin - K3
• Vitamin K1 (phylloquinon) – plant origin
• Vitamin K2 (menaquinon) – normally produced by bacteria
in the large intestine
• K1 – used mainly for blood clothing
• K2 – non-coagulation actions - in metabolism and bone
mineralization, in cell growth.
• Vitamin K3 (Menadione) - Synthetic form
 Cont.
• Daily requirement: 0.2-0.3 mg
• Absorption - upper small intestine - vitamin K ( K1 & K2)
require bile salts for absorption
• Transported from the mucosal cells to the liver by binding to
chylomicrons
• Vitamin K3 is readily absorbed without requiring bile salts.
• Vit-K- Stored in liver, present in significant amount in spleen
and skeletal muscle
• Released to the blood stream and transported in the blood by
associating with beta-lipoproteins (LDL)
• Hypovitaminosis- Hemorrhages and Increased coagulation
time
 Functions
• Coenzyme for the synthesis of prothrombin and blood
clotting (II, VII, IX, X ) factors in the liver.
•  Essential cofactor for a carboxylase that catalyzes
carboxylation of glutamic acid residues on vitamin K-
dependent proteins that involved in 1) Coagulation 2) Bone
Mineralization 3) Cell growth.
• Increases the resistance of capillaries.
• Stimulates the synthesis of albumins, pepsin, trypsis,
lipase, amilase.
• Increases the peristalsis of intestine.
 Vitamin C
• Water soluble vitamin , known as ascorbic acid.
• Ascorbic acid is a hexose derivative & closely resembles
monosaccharide's in structure
• Exists in two forms L– ascorbic acid (reduces form) L–
Dehydro ascorbic acid (oxidized form)
• Acidic property - due to the enolic hydroxyl group
• Strong reducing agent
• L – ascorbic acid undergoes oxidation to form dehydro ascorbic
acid & it is reversible reaction.
• Ascorbic acid & dehydro ascorbic acid are biologically active.
• D ascorbic acid is biologically inactive.
 Cont.
• Ascorbic acid is present in all tissue & plasma in reduced
form.
• Oxidation of ascorbic acid is rapid in the presence of copper.
• Heat labile and during cooking about 50% of vitamin passes to
water & 20% is oxidized.
• Synthesize from glucose via uronic acid pathway.
• Man guinea pigs and bats cannot synthesize - due to deficiency
of the enzyme L– gulonolactone oxidase.
• Readily absorbed from stomach & small intestine.
• Only small amounts is stored in the body (1 gm) - ascorbic acid
& dehydro ascorbic acid - Mainly in retina, adrenal gland,
pituitary & thymus.
 Actions
• Synthesis of collagen, a component of blood vessels, scar
tissues, tendons, ligaments, and bone.
• Synthesis of the neurotransmitters e.g norepinephrine.
• Highly effective antioxidant - protects proteins, lipids (fats),
carbohydrates, and nucleic acid (DNA and RNA) from
damage by free radicals.
• Regenerates other antioxidants such as vitamin E.
• Synthesis of carnitine, a small molecule that is essential for
the transport of fat to mitochondria, for conversion to
energy.
• Aids the body in absorbing iron from plant sources.
• Helps your body to fight infections.
• Aids in the prevention of heart disease.
• Helps prevent some forms of cancer
 Cont.
Vitamin C Deficiency
• Scurvy, Cardiovascular Disease, Stroke, Cataracts.

Scurvy
• Bleeding gums , petechiae, easy bruising , impaired
wound healing and bone repair , joint pain , anemia.

Recommended Dietary Intake

• Men: 60mg/day Women: 60mg/day
• Pregnant women: 95mg/day Children: 45mg/day
 Vitamin B-complex
• Refers to other essential water-soluble vitamins except
for vitamin C.
• Include thiamine (vitamin B1), riboflavin (vitamin B2),
niacin (vitamin B3), pantothenic acid (vitamin B5),
pyridoxine (vitamin B6), biotin, folic acid.
 Vitamin B1
• Syn- thiamine, anti-beri-beri or antineuritic vitamin - one of
the eight water-soluble B vitamins.
• Named B1 because it was the first B vitamin discovered.
• Contains pyrimidine ring and a thiazole ring held by a
methylene bridge.
• Synthesized by plants and some microorganisms, but not
usually by animals.
• Human obtain from diet, though small amounts from
intestinal bacteria.
• The active form of the coenzyme, thiamine pyrophosphate
(thiamine diphosphate, TPP), is synthesized by an enzymatic
transfer of a pyrophosphate group from ATP to thiamine)
• Coenzyme form: TPP
 Cont.
• Co-factor for carbohydrates metabolism (Kreb’s Cycle)
• TPP - coenzyme for-
Pyruvate dehydrogenase and α-ketoglutarate
dehydrogenase that function in the metabolism of
carbohydrates.
Transketolase - functions in pentose phosphate pathway
to synthesize NADPH.
Pentose sugars deoxyribose and ribose involved in
nucleic acids biosynthesis.
 Cont.
Deficiency
• Beriberi diseases - two types
• Wet beriberi- affects the heart and circulatory system.
• In extreme cases, can cause heart failure.
• Dry beriberi- damages the nerves and can lead to
decreased muscle strength and eventually, muscle paralysis.

Recommended Dietary Intake

• Adults - 1-1.5 mg/day Children - 0.7-1.2 mg/day
Pregnancy & lactation - 2 mg/day
 Vitamin B2
• water-soluble vitamin known as riboflavin - comes from
ribose (the sugar whose reduced form, ribitol, forms part
of its structure) and flavin, the ring-moiety which imparts
the yellow color. molecule.
• Not much stored – found in high concentrations in liver,
kidney, and heart, some in brain.
• Very sensitive to UV light and degrade at pH > 7.0.
• Central component of the cofactors FAD and FMN, and
required by all flavoproteins.
• Plays a key role in energy metabolism, and
the metabolism of fats, ketone bodies, carbohydrates,
and proteins.
 Cont.
• Stable to heat, oxidation and acid.
• yellow or yellow- oragne color - used in food coloring.

Deficiency
• Cracks and sores at the corners of the mouth, eye disorders,
Sore tongue, bloodshot eyes.
• Dermatitis, hair loss, retarded growth, burning feet.

Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA)-

• Adult Men and women - 1.3 mg and 1.1 mg daily,
respectively.
• Pregnancy and lactation- 1.4 mg and 1.6 mg daily, respectively.
 Actions /role
• Biological Active Forms- FMN ( flavin mononucleotide) and FAD
(flavin Adenin dinucleotide)
• serve as prosthetic groups of oxidoreductase enzymes(flavoproteins)
• as coenzymes - wide variety of oxidative enzymes and remain
bound to the enzymes
• Flavoproteins - important roles in the electron transport chain.
• Decarboxylation of pyruvate and α-ketoglutarate requires FAD.
• Fatty acyl CoA dehydrogenase requires FAD in fatty acid oxidation.
• FAD - required for the production of pyridoxic acid from pyridoxal
(vitamin B6), to convert retinal (vitamin A) to retinoic acid, to
convert tryptophan to niacin (vitamin B3), reduction of the oxidized
form of glutathione to its reduced form.
 Vitamin B3
• Niacin , Niacinamide , Nicotinamide ,Pellagra preventive
factor, Nicotinic acid .
• Niacin is used for Nicotinic acid.
• Amide form of Niacin - niacinamide or nicotinamide.
• conversion of Niacin to niacinamide takes place in the
kidney, brain and liver .
• Structurally, nicotinic acid is pyridine 3-carboxylic acid.
• Precursor - Dietary tryptophan
• Dietary nicotinamide, niacin and tryptophan contribute to
the synthesis of the coenzymes NAD⁺ and NADP⁺.
 Cont.
Recommended Dietary Allowance
• Adult (men) 15-20 mg/day Children 10-15mg/day
• Adult (women) 13-15mg/day
• One Niacin Equivalent (NE) = 1 mg Niacin or 60 mg of
Tryptophan.

Deficiency
• Pellagra - referred to as 3 Ds
• Dermatitis - Inflammation of skin
• Dementia - confused, disoriented.
• Diarrhea - irritation/inflammation of mucous membranes 
 Role/Action/function
• Coenzymes NAD⁺ and NADP⁺ - participates in 200+ reactions in
the body.
• A large number of oxidoreductase group enzymes - NAD⁺ or
NADP⁺ dependent.
• NAD⁺ and NADP⁺ participate in metabolisms of carbohydrate,
lipid, protein etc.

NAD dependent enzymes

 Carbohydrate metabolism: Glyceraldehyde 3P-Dehydrogenase-
catalyzes the conversion of Glyceraldehye 3P to 1,3
Bisphosphoglycerate.  
 Cont.
Lipid metabolism : β - Hydroxy acyl CoA dehydrogenase-
catalyzes the oxidation of β - Hydroxy acyl CoA to β - Ketoacyl
CoA.
Lactate dehydrogenase - catalyzes the interconversion of lactate
to pyruvate - occurs in anaerobic conditions ( pyruvate to
lactate in muscle & erythrocytes).
Alcohol dehydrogenase- Ethylalcohol metabolism.
 Vitamin B6
• Water soluble vitamin.
• Pyridoxine and its derivative pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP)
are – more than 100 enzymes involved in metabolism.
• Pyridoxine and pyridoxine derivative - consists of 3
closely related compounds - Pyridoxine (alcohol), Pyridoxal
(aldehyde) and Pyridoxamine (amine).
• Are equally effective as precursors of coenzyme PLP, which
is the active form- synthesized by pyridoxal kinase utilizing
ATP.
• Pyridoxamine - mostly present in plants.
• Pyridoxal & pyridoxine - presented in animal foods.
 Cont.
• Pyridoxine - converted pyridoxal & pyridoxamine.
• Photosensitive and Thermostable
• Daily requirement: 2-3 mg
• Also produced by intestinal bacteria.
• In children - B6 deficiency leads to convulsions due to
decreased formation of GABA.
• Demyelination of nerves & peripheral neuritis
• Dermatological manifestations
• Deficiency - pallagra
 Cont.
• Catalyzed by PLP-dependent enzymes Hemoglobin and amino
acid biosynthesis, as well as fatty acid metabolism.
• PLP-dependent enzyme - decarboxylase  catalyzes the synthesis
of serotonin  from the amino acid tryptophan.
• Act as coenzyme for transaminases & decarboxylases.
• Coenzyme for glycogen phosphorylase, catalyzes the release
of glucose from stored glycogen. 
• Dopamine from 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine
• Norepinephrine, Histamine, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and
for myelin formation.
 Vitamin B12
• Cyanocobalamine , Anti Pernicious anemia factor
• also called cobalamin, is a water-soluble vitamin .
• key role in the normal functioning of the brain and nervous
system, and for the formation of blood.
• Very stable at high temperatures at pH is ranged from 4.5 to 5.0
• Strong acidic and highly alkaline environment loses its activity.
• Rapidly degraded in the light.
•  Neither plants nor animals are independently capable of
constructing vitamin B12 because of lack of enzymes required
for its biosynthesis. 
• Synthesized solely by microorganisms.
 Cont.
• Requirements - 5 and 30 μg of cobalamin daily.
• Body stores - 2 to 3 mg, sufficient for 3 to 4 years.
• Absorption is Intrinsic factor dependent.
• vital role in the catabolism of odd-chain fatty acids, threonine,
methionine, and the branched- chain amino acids (leucine,
isoleucine, and valine).
• Role in DNA synthesis.
• Conversion of homocysteine into methionine.
• Deficiency - Dietary deficiency (rare)
• Decreased production of intrinsic factor - Pernicious anemia