PHILOSOPHY: ITS MEANING,

METHODS, SCOPE, AND RELEVANCE

INTRODUCTION: The subject matter of Philosophy is diverse in its
interest as it is comprehensive in its scope and coverage. As a field of
human interest, Philosophy covers the whole of life. It is driven first by
the need and desire to make sense of our everyday life and
surroundings and this forms the basis for further higher academic and
intellectual investigations, analyses and interpretation of complex
problems and concerns of life with a view to resolving or at least having
a better understanding of the problems and issues.
For instance, we are all concerned with everyday issues of how best to relate
to our parents, other members of our community and society at large; we are
concerned with what duties (if any) we owe to ourselves, to other fellow
human beings, to animals and to our environment. We are all committed to
the pursuit of the ‘good life’ (whatever that means to us); which is why we
are, for example, pursuing a university education in order to attain the ‘good
life’. Our interest may also be drawn to existential and life’s troubling issues
such as poverty, disease, hunger and suffering, crime, punishment and
justice, abortion, suicide, corruption and good governance etc.
• Beyond these, we may also be consciously or unconsciously
concerned with fundamental issues like our origin and our destiny as
human beings as well as the origin, nature and destiny of the world in
which we live. One may pause to ask, why the interest in these issues?
Well, the answer lies in our nature as humans because, unlike other
animals that have really no care beyond their biological needs, Man,
being a rational being is curious and filled with the desire to know, to
decipher and to understand. The Philosophical underpinning to all
these has remained man’s eternal quest for meaning, purpose, order
and direction in life. This indeed, is the essence of the subject matter
of philosophy.
 MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY.

The meaning or definition of Philosophy varies depending on the perspective of the

person defining it. However, the search for meaning, purpose, order and direction in
life underscores the meaning of Philosophy. We examine the different definitions
of the subject under the popular, etymological, and formal/academic categories.
 The Popular meaning: In the ordinary sense, the term ‘philosophy’ simply refers
to at least one of two things: (i) Our attitude to life and ( ii) Our world view.
• Attitude to life here simply means the general pattern or the habitual way we, as
individuals or as groups respond to events or issues.
• In this sense ‘philosophy’ is seen as a system of principles for guidance in
practical affairs or a system a person forms for conduct of life. An attitude for
example, of rationality, patience, composure and calm in the presence of
troubles and annoyances.
•World view: In a similar but somewhat more developed sense, ‘Philosophy’ is
used to characterize a person’s (or group of person’s) expressed or observed
‘world view’ - depicting an overall perception and approach to life based on
certain ideas, principles and values that motivate and explain a person’s choices
and behavior. This ‘world view’ may be the sum total of the person’s
assumptions, beliefs, attitudes and prejudices which are partly inherited and
partly acquired in the process of living. A person’s world view simply depicts
his frame of reference or general perspective in life.
It is to either of these two that people refer to when they claim to have a
‘philosophy of life’. The two explanations above are termed as the ‘popular’
conception or what Jonas F. Soltis calls the ‘public’ sense of the meaning of
philosophy
A look at the origin of the word ‘Philosophy’ throws more light on the
meaning, interest and concerns of the subject. Etymologically, the word
‘Philosophy’ is traced to two Greek words Philo (or Phileo) which means
‘Love’ and Sophia which means ‘Wisdom’. Thus literally, “Philosophia”
from its root words translates to “ love for Wisdom”, “love of insight” or
“love for knowledge and understanding”.
 ‘Love’ – a strong desire for a particular object.
‘Knowledge’ – the accumulation of facts, data or information that you
have learned about or experienced.
‘Wisdom’ - the correct use or wise application of knowledge; the ability to
discern or judge what is true, right or lasting; correct or wise decision about
future action.
‘Philosophy’ in this sense therefore refer to the strong desire of a human person
to possess knowledge as well as its correct or wise application.
 It is in the above sense that the ancient Greeks used the the term ‘Philosophy’.
Indeed, the term was said to have been coined by Pythagoras of Croton who
identified himself as a lover of wisdom, not particularly as wise man. Socrates the
great Greek Philosopher was also reported to have considered himself not a wise
man but one in search of wisdom.
 To the ancient Greeks among who was recorded high level of
intellectual activities from about 500 BCE, the discipline of
‘Philosophy’ was characterized by the love for or pursuit of
Knowledge/wisdom in all areas of speculative thought including the
arts, sciences and religion - Philosophy was indeed, ‘the mother’ of
all subjects
 ‘Falsafa’ the Arabic concept of Philosophy is also traced to the root
words ‘Philosophia”. Indeed, the word is purely of Greek origin and
the activities of the Falasifa (Philosophers) involved the Arabic
translation of the classical Greek philosophical texts that dwell on the
love/search for knowledge and wisdom on fundamental issues of life.
• Thus, Islamic Philosophy (Falsafa al Islamiyya) accordingly, is
explained as the systematic investigation of problems connected with
life, the universe, ethics, society etc. from the Islamic perspectives
 ORIGIN OF WESTERN
PHILOSOPHY
Western Philosophy (which is the focus of this module) and indeed, the tradition of
Western Scholarship as we know it today owes its roots to the ancient Greeks. While
ancient Western Philosophical Inquiry was rooted in wonder and perplexity, modern
Western Philosophy is rooted in doubt.
Wonder as the origin of ancient Greek Philosophy: Philosophy in the West is said
to have begun in the Greek colony of Miletus with Thales (640-562 BCE) who, in his
desire to understand the nature of reality and the universe, was said to be the first to
ask ‘What is the basic stuff of the universe from which all else come’?
This question formed the foundation of western philosophical inquiry which spread
outward to other thinkers of that era like Anaximander, Heraclitus and Empedocles to
reach its heights in the works of scholars like Plato and Aristotle.
• As a thinker and enquirer into the nature of reality, Thales offered a view of what
governed the universe itself.
• For him, the basic matter or underlining arche (principle) which was essential to
all things was Water. Therefore to him, everything in the Universe at its most
fundamental was made up of water.
• This explanation of the nature of the universe by Thales was revolutionary in the
sense that it was the first attempt to give a rational, not a mythological explanation
of the nature of reality .
• In his method of investigation, Thales attempted to be systematic and applied the
same general principles to formulate a rational account of the Universe. This
approach was to lay the foundation for rational and systematic inquiry into the
nature of reality in the western Philosophical tradition.
 Doubt as the basis of modern western Philosophical inquiry:
• Modern Western Philosophy sprang from doubt. The French Philosopher
Rene Descartes, regarded as the father of modern western philosophy
started with doubt. Sense-perception he argued, may be illusionary; reason
may be so constituted that it may lead to error; authority is unreliable-
• So, experience, reason and authority or tradition are doubtful but, the fact
of doubting is undoubted. To doubt is to think, to think is to exist, hence
his famous statement: ‘I think, therefore I exist’ or ‘cogito ergo sum’ (in
Latin)
• Therefore, the existence of the self is undoubted.
• There is the innate idea of God in mind, therefore God must exist – He must be
the author of the innate idea of God, the infinite, eternal, truthful and perfect
Being.
• Descartes argues that we have clear and distinct ideas of material things,
therefore they exist. If they did not exist, their distinct ideas would be false and
God would be untruthful.
• Thus, Descartes started with universal doubt, proved the existence of self, God
and the world and removed the original and provisional doubt. Hence the
element of doubt or skepticism in the tradition of western philosophical inquiry,
the essence of which is to establish a rational and firmer grounds for belief.
DEFINITION OF FORMAL PHILOSOPHY
•Formal definition of Philosophy: Beyond the popular and
etymological meaning explained above, Philosophy can be described as
a specialized activity or undertaking to which scholars called
philosophers devote time and energy in its pursuit.
•As a formal discipline, Philosophy has been variously defined by
scholars and the varying definitions reflects the different perspectives
of the authors on the diverse nature of the subject.
We take samples of the various definitions of formal Philosophy as
follows:
Philosophy as:
 “The science that studies beings in their ultimate causes and
principles through the aid of human reason alone”
In other words, Philosophy is that subject concerned with the effort
to understand the reason and principles that account for everything
that exist.
‘Philosophy as ‘the study of the general and fundamental nature of
reality, existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind and language.”
 ‘Philosophy’ as ‘rigorous, disciplined and guarded analysis of some
of the most difficult problems of life’ -Henderson

‘Philosophy’ as “the thinking really hard about the most important

questions and trying to bring analytic clarity both to the questions and
answers” -Marylyn Adams
 ‘Philosophy” as the “study that seeks to understand the mysteries of
existence and reality. It tries to discover the nature of truth and
knowledge and to find what is of basic value and importance in life”.
It also examines the relationship between humanity and nature and
between the individual and society …. Philosophy arises out of
wonder, curiosity and the desire to know and understand…
 Aristotle, one of the foremost ancient Greek Philosophers begins his
Metaphysics with the affirmation that all men by nature desire to
know- “this natural addiction of the human mind to know the truth is
the driving force behind philosophy”
 In this regards, Aristotle refers to philosophy as “the knowledge of
truth”.
 “All things in life are philosophical- when one is to imagine life
without thought or knowledge, they are left to only imagine the
oblivion they would be left to reside in”.
-Aristotle

 ‘Philosophy’ as the “Discipline in which questions are more

important than answers because answers themselves will in turn
become more questions” - Karl Jaspers
 ‘Philosophy’ as ‘an attempt at working out some general, systematic, coherent
and consistent picture of all we know and think about’.
 ‘Philosophy’ as ‘an inquiry into the nature of Truth about the human person and
the world around him’
 ‘Philosophy’ as ‘a rational search for answers to the basic questions about the
ultimate meaning of reality as a whole and human life in particular’

 ‘Philosophy’ as ‘rational (unbiased) inquiry into whatever is, in so far as it is’ –

i.e.an activity in criticality
 Philosophy as a method of reflective thinking and reasoned inquiry’
- Harold Titus (1964)
 ‘Philosophy’ - as “an investigation of the nature, causes or principles
of reality, knowledge, or values based on logical reasoning rather than
empirical observation” – American Heritage Dictionary.

 ‘Philosophy’ as “the study of the ultimate nature of existence, reality,

knowledge and goodness as discoverable by human reasoning alone”
- Kernerman English Multilingual Dictionary
‘Philosophy’ as “the careful thought about fundamental nature of the world,
the grounds for human knowledge and the evaluation of human conduct”.
- The Philosophy pages.
 ‘Philosophy’ as “the rational search for answers to questions that arise when
we reflect on human experiences”/Philosophy “as a rational search for answers
to the basic questions about the ultimate meaning of reality as a whole and
human life in particular”.- Omorege J.J. (2005)

Philosophy as “an activity people undertake when they seek to understand

fundamental truths about themselves, the world they live in and also their
relationship to the world and to each another”.
-The Dept. of Philosophy, Florida State University
 “Philosophy is critical thinking: trying to become aware of how
one’s own thinking works. Of all the way in which one’s own
thinking shapes the things one thinks about’ -Don Cupitt

 “Philosophy is thinking critically on the way things are: That

includes reflecting critically on social, political and economic
arrangements. It always intimates the possibility that things could be
other than they are. And better. - Michael Sandel
 ‘Philosophy’ as “ a habit of mind or a body of rational knowledge that results
from disciplined inquiry and that enables one to explain in a more or less
profound way the sum of human experience “
-William James (1977)
 ‘Philosophy’ as an intellectual activity focusing on the analysis of language
with a view to achieving clarity and consistency of thought and expression’
Thus, ‘Philosophy’ is “a battle against the bewitchment of our intelligence by
means of language” - the philosopher’s task therefore, is to clarify the meaning
of words.
- Ludwig Wittgenstein, a 20thcentury Austrian Philosopher
“Philosophy is the interpretation of the world in order to change it”
-Karl Max
-That Philosophers before his era only attempted to interpret the world, the essence in
his view however, was to change it.
“Philosophy is that which grasps its own era in thought”
-Hegel
All these definitions have one central theme - man’s eternal quest for meaning,
purpose, order and direction in life through the use of reason.

What other ideas, themes or issues can you identify from the different definitions of
formal Philosophy given above?
 PHILOSOPHY AS AN ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE

 In addition to being a subject of formal interest by scholars across all

subject areas ranging from Mathematics to physics, to linguistics,
Economics, Law etc. Philosophy is also taught as a specialized academic
discipline just like other traditional subject areas.
In this regard, Philosophy is seen as an academic activity focusing on
specific areas of study and thus defined as:
 “the discipline concerned with questions of how one should live (Ethics),
what sort of things exist and what is their essential nature (Metaphysics),
what particularly counts as genuine Knowledge (Epistemology) and
what are the correct principles of reasoning” (Logic)
-Wikipedia
• In addition to these traditional areas of inquiry, Philosophy is
also taught as a body of ideas or ‘schools of thought’ such
as Idealism, Realism, Pragmatism, Existentialism etc.
reflecting products of philosophical inquiry and perspectives
on life and issues generally.
• The history and evolution of philosophical ideas through the
ages is also taught as a component of the academic discipline
of Philosophy
 Philosophical Methods
Philosophy is a reflective activity that relies on the reflective methods. The
reflective methods in philosophy include questioning, critical discussion, rational
argument and systematic presentation.
• In line with their definition of the subject, professional philosophers adopt two
methods in doing philosophy;
• ii) The first method involves a speculative approach in which issues are examined in
a logical, consistent and systematic manner so as to arrive at conclusions that are
sound, coherent and consistent in all their parts. To some, these theoretical
conclusions or speculations are what philosophy is all about.
•ii) To others who adopt the second approach however, it is not necessary to reach
those conclusions before a person is said to be engaged in philosophy: it is still
philosophy if the aim is to clarify and explain the language with which we express
our ideas.
• As F.W Garforth puts it, “to philosophize is to engage in strenuous
activity of thought and to pursue it with no other aim than to satisfy the
importunate questioning of the human mind”.
• In the two approaches mentioned above, the common element is the use of
reason or logical argument as their tool.
• In this regards, Philosophy places absolute reliance on the use of logical
reasoning; and by logical reasoning is meant examining every evidence in
favor or against any claim, from a dispassionate and impartial point of
view, exposing prejudices and biases in claims that are put forward and in
general, giving every bit of evidence as much weight as it actually
deserves.
• As a process based on the first approach outlined above, the
philosophical method usually begins when a philosopher examines his
own beliefs and begins to doubt their validity. From his doubt
questions emerge. Before answering the questions, the philosopher
thoroughly analyzes it to ensure it is properly defined. This helps to
narrow the path to the most precise answers.
• Next, the Philosopher proposes possible answers to the questions and
provides reasoned argument to support each one.
•The arguments are then critiqued by other
philosophers who may give rebuttals. Through this
process of criticism, argument, rebuttal and affirmation
known as dialectic, Philosophers attempt to prove the
rationality of their beliefs and discover fundamental
truths.
• Skepticism (or doubt) as a philosophical tool: In its approach, Western
philosophical methods in particular, emphasizes the tentative nature of
whatever conclusions that may be arrived at on any issue. In this regards, it
shares with modern science the belief that no conclusions are so absolute and
certain as to be immune to further future corrections by new evidence. Again,
as Garforth puts it, “there belongs to the very nature of philosophy a refusal
to take for granted, an attitude of skepticism which regards no conclusion as
final and every matter, however apparently closed, as opened to further
question”.
• Tied to skepticism is the use of questioning as a tool. As noted by Karl Jaspers
‘Philosophy is a discipline in which questions are more important than answers because
answers themselves will in turn become more questions’
• Thus, the dual use of skepticism and questioning as philosophical tools is to enable us
achieve clarify in our thoughts and the language with which we express our ideas and to
remain open minded and willing to shift our positions in the light of new evidence.
• In philosophy, questioning a deeply held belief or social practice sets one on the path of
true understanding, and it is this understanding that leads to meaningful and personal
change. A good philosopher recognizes the danger of accepting knowledge at face value.
Social or scientific theories may be untested or contain personal bias, trusting them
immediately could result in terrible consequences.
• To summarize, Professional Philosophers adapt two approaches in doing
philosophy based on their conception of the discipline :
i) The first approach conceives Philosophy as a speculative and prescriptive
activity in which one tries by means of reasoning to build up a coherent and
consistent world-view or the ideal world that ought to be. Thus, Philosophy is
both a process and a product;
ii) The approach that sees Philosophy as an activity that should be confined to
defining concepts, analysing and criticising statements and propositions with a
view to achieving clarity and consistency of thought and expression. Philosophy in
this sense is essentially seen as a process.
In both approaches however, logical reasoning and healthy skepticism are
common characteristics of engaging in the activity of philosophy.
• For further reading see Akinpelu J.A (1981) An Introduction To
Philosophy of Education; Macmillan Publishers