Signal Safety

Learning Objectives
• Identify three sources of electrical power that can kill

• Define high voltage

• State the purpose of equipment grounds (green wire in wall

outlets)

• Explain the purpose of ground wrist straps, shorting sticks and

wooden canes as related to electrical safety

• State the distance antennas should be from power lines

• State why you should not look into a fiber optic cable

• Define the safety risks associated with lightning

 Warning:
If you are squeamish about
viewing gross human
disfigurement please do not
view the next several slides.
 Three Sources Of Electrical
Power That Can Kill
Direct Current
(Batteries or Rectified AC)

Alternating Current
(Wall Outlet)

Radio
Frequency
(Microwave, Satellite,
Troposcatter)
 High Voltage
High voltage is approximately 600 volts

E
I
R
600
I
10, 000
I=.060 or 60 milliamps
 High Voltage
• Body resistance is approx 10,000 ohms
– Women less
• Deadly voltages
– AC - 100 ma
– DC - 300 ma
– Side effects felt above 10 mA, severe shock
above 50mA, and 100mA could be fatal
– RF - Small microwave oven is approximately
400 watts
• As a comparison, the telephone system is 48
VDC….same as that of an arc welder
 High Voltage

• Cross country power lines could

have millions of volts

• City power lines have thousands of

volts

• Generators and shelters use 100s

of volts
 Grounding

120 VAC(black)
Return(white)
Ground(green
or bare)

Proper Grounding Prevents Electrocution

Circuit Breaker will open in high current
situation: (Hot wire shorted to chasis)
 Primary Purpose of Ground
A low resistance path for current flow.

Ground rod
 ABC’s of Grounding

• Ensure all electronic equipment is properly

grounded
• Ensure personnel know proper grounding
procedures
• Be mindful of static electricity
• Drive ground rods to a depth of six feet
• Soil should remain moist around ground rods
and straps and connections free of
nonconductive material
 Antenna Safety
• Danger from falling:
– On power lines
– On people
– On equipment

• Danger from radio frequencies:

– Cell phones
– TROPO 1200 watts
– GMF satellite 585 watts
– In general all antennas generate RF that could be
detrimental to your health if exposed for prolonged
periods.

• Ensure that antennas are properly grounded and tall

ones have lights
 Antenna Safety
• Antennas must be twice the distance from
power lines as the length of the antenna

• Check for improper installation

– Tension of guy wires

• Wear hardhats, eye protection and gloves

• Ensure antenna tips are properly installed

 Antennas and Power Lines
• Identify power lines in operational areas
• Do not run signal cables too close to power lines
• Lines in close proximity to each other can induce
frequencies and voltages into each other (60hz
tone in telephone line)
• Florescent lights, garbage disposals, egg
beaters, vacuums and other small motors and
engines, especially UNTUNED, are sources of
noise and distortion in communications
equipment
 Lightning Safety
Ensure communications equipment provides a
Low resistance path for lightning (ground)

Lightning rod

Antenna Beacon

Ground metal
roofs
Ground clamps
every 6 ft up
tower legs
Ground rod
10 ft ¾
inch.
 Lightning Safety
• If possible, discontinue use of radios,
telephones, etc.

• If situation permits, disconnect equipment

from power sources and antennas

• Keep calls brief, return calls after storm

 Lightning
• Defies laws of basic electron flow with 100k to
300k amps of current flow

• Seeks low resistance path to earth which we

attempt to provide through grounding networks

• We also attempt to let it jump or arc across

equipment components when certain potentials
are exceeded (example: lightning hitting a car. It
would take about 25,000 tires to protect you.)
 Safety Responsibilities
• Commander: commanders at all levels are the
safety officers

• This responsibility cannot be relinquished or

delegated to anyone

• All personnel are responsible to aid the

commander in implementing the command
accident prevention program
 Safety Officers
• Each unit should appoint the commander an
additional officer on unit orders to perform the
duties of safety as outlined in AR 385-10 and
DA-PAM 385-1

• Duties are to inform and advise the

commander on the status of the safety
program, conduct safety inspections, monitor
all incident reports, and maintain a report on
all reportable accidents
 Safety Statistics
• World War II: 56 percent of casualties were
from accidents

• Korean War: 44 percent

• Vietnam War: 55 percent

• Desert Shield/Storm: 75 percent

• Statistics from risk management leaders guide

 Causes Of Accidents
• Individuals abandon safety in an effort to perform
missions

• Standards are unclear or do not exist

• Failure to establish a safety network; Designate

safety personnel

• Not enforcing standards; Require all personnel to

perform to standards in all operations

• Stupidity (lack of good judgment)

 Other Safety Items
• Using power lines to hold up cables

• Safety boards canes

• Left hand rule

• Wound or water
– 10,000 Ohms could go as low as 300 ohms

• Fiber optics and lasers

 Review
• Identify three sources of electrical power that can kill
• Define high voltage
• State the purpose of equipment grounds (green wire
in wall outlets)
• Explain the purpose of ground wrist straps, shorting
sticks and wooden canes as related to electrical
safety
• State the distance antennas should be from power
lines
• State why you should not look into a fiber optic cable
• Define the safety risks associated with lightning
Questions
 Metric Notation
9 6 3 0 -3 -6 -9 -12
1012 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Tera Giga Mega Kilo BASE Milli micro nano pico

T G M K m  n p

T = Tera = 1012 = 1,000,000,000,000 (Trillion)

G = Giga = 109 = 1,000,000,000 (Billion)
M = Mega = 106 = 1,000,000 (Million)
K = Kilo = 103 = 1,000 (Thousand)
m = milli = 10-3 = .001 (thousand)
-6
 = micro = 10 = .000001 (million)
n = nano = 10-9 = .000000001 (billion)
-12
p = pico = 10 = .000000000001 (trillion)
Direct Current Fundamentals
 Learning Objectives
• Describe the properties of valence shell
(conductor, semi-conductor and insulator)

• Explain laws of attraction and repelling on

ions

• Explain the advantages of adding series and

parallel batteries
 Learning Objectives (Cont.)

• Explain the methods of moving electrons to

produce current flow (example = friction)
• Describe the rules for series and parallel
circuits, calculate resistance, current,
voltage and power
• Describe the effects of shorts and opens in
series and parallel circuits
• Explain the relationship of I,E, and R using
Ohm’s law
 Valance Shell Determines
Electrical Properties
Valance Is The Atom Protons
Outermost Shell
Nucleus

Neutrons

Electrons
 Proton

Positive Lines
Of Force
 Electron

Negative Lines Of Force

Close Together All Lines Interlink
CONDUCTORS INSULATORS

gold dry air

silver glass

copper porcelain

carbon rubber

acids wood
 ATOM ATOM

FREE ELECTRONS MOVING

COPPER CONDUCTOR
FROM ATOM TO ATOM
Valence Shell With 3 Or Less
Electrons
Conductor Metals And
Resistance
Silver .92
Copper 1.0
Gold 1.38
Aluminum 1.59
Iron 6.67

Compare With
Carbon 2,030
Valence Shell With 4 Electrons

Semi-conductor
Silicon
Germanium
Doped To Become
P And N Materials
Valence Shell With 5 Or More
Electrons
Insulator
Di-electric
Castor Oil 4.7
Glass 3.7-10
Bakelite 3.5-5.0
Air 1
Porcelain 5.0-7.0
 Valence Shell
• Rubber, glass, Resistance infinite
porcelain, dry
wood, ceramic
• Copper, gold, Resistance low
silver, brass
aluminum
• Germanium and Used to control full
silicon range of current
flow from off to
maximum.
 Coulomb`s Law
• Charged bodies attract or repel each
other based on the product of charges
and distance from each other.

• Likes repel and unlikes attract each other.

►(-) and (-) or (+) and (+) repel.
►(-) and (+) attract.
 Definitions
•Voltage (Signified by Letter E and V)
•Difference Of Potential caused by the
amount of electrons at one point as
compared to another. 1 x 10EE18 more
electrons on – (negative) terminal of
battery is equal to 1 volt.

•Military uses E or EMF

(Electro Motive Force)
 Definitions
• Current
– Movement of electrons from a negative to a
positive source (electron flow).
– Abbreviation is the letter I.
– Unit of measurement is Ampere or Amps.

• Resistance
– Opposition to current flow measured in ohms.
– Abbreviation is R -- Symbol is omega ().
– Resistors dissipate energy in the form of heat
 VOLTAGE

THE ELECTRICAL FORCE OR PRESSURE

THAT CAUSES ELECTRONS TO FLOW.

LETTER SYMBOL IS “E”

UNIT OF MEASURE IS VOLT (V).

 Methods Of Producing Voltage
• Friction
• Heat (thermo-coupler)
• Pressure (crystal)
• Light (photo electric cell)
• Chemical action (battery)
• Magnetism (generator/turbine and hand
cranked generators
 CURRENT

THE MOVEMENT OF ELECTRONS.

LETTER SYMBOL IS “I”

UNIT OF MEASURE IS AMPERE (A).

 RESISTOR
“Opposes the flow of electrons”
 Resistor
Schematic
Symbol

Fixed
Fixed Value Resistor Variable
Variable Value Resistor
 Ohm’s Law

• Current and resistance are inversely related

• Current and voltage are proportionally related
• How is resistance and voltage related?
Ohm’s Law
 Definition of Direct Current
• An electrical current traveling in one
direction.
A voltage that does not vary but remains
constant above or below a reference point.
+6 Volts

0 Volts
 An Analogy of a DC Circuit

WATER WATER
PUMP FLOW
10V LAMP
10 LB
EMF
SQ IN.
Battery
Electric
GENERATOR
Current

Water Hose Copper conductor

 Series Circuit
Has ‘one’ path for current flow,

R1 R2 R3

1 amp
ET = 100 V
 Series Circuits Characteristics

• RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + RN (Additive)

• ET = ER1 + ER2 + ER3 + ERN

(Additive)

• IT = IR1 = IR2 = IR3 = IRN

(Same/Equal at all points)
 Resistors In Series
Total resistance is “additive”
R1 R2 R3

20 Ohms 30 Ohms 50 Ohms

1 amp
ET = 100 V

RT =
 Resistors In Series
R1 R2 R3

20 Ohms 30 Ohms 50 Ohms

1 amp
ET = 100 V

RT = 100
Use Ohms law to make calculations
If you have any 2 variables you can ET = 100 V
calculate the third. IT = 1 A
Resistors in Series Circuits
R1
20 Ohms

30 Ohms
R2
12 V

R3
50 Ohms

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + RN (ADDITIVE)
 Voltage in Series Circuits
• The individual voltage drops must always
equal the source voltage (battery).

• ET = ER1 + ER2 + ER3 + ERN

• Voltage does not move, it causes pressure

(1V). The more pressure, the more electrons it
can move past a point in a given amount of
time (second)
 Batteries (DC)
• Batteries in series: the voltages add and
current capability remains the same.

• Batteries in parallel: the current capability

increases and the voltage remains constant.

• In series connect terminals - to +.

• In parallel - to - and + to +.
 Batteries In Series
Negative + Positive

1.5 V 1.5 V

1.5 V

V = E = Voltage
Batteries in series ADD ET = E1 + E2 + E3
Series means batteries joined negative to positive
 M
Black Lead Red Lead

C D E F
- + - +
(THE POLARITY OF A
B - RESISTOR)
VOLTAGE IS
MEASURED IN
PARALLEL
A + BY A MULTIMETER
 C D E F
- + - +
Schematic symbol for ground

B -
Ground – Common reference point;
Magnitude (voltage) is zero.
A + Provides return path.
Protects equipment and people
 Voltage in Series Circuits
R1

2V

12 V 4V R2

R3

6V
ET =ER1 +ER2 +ER3 +ERn (Additive)
The sum of the voltage drops around a

series circuit equals the applied Voltage

 Current in Series Circuits
R1
.2 amps .2 amps

__

R2
12 V
+
R3

.2 amps .2 amps

IT = IR1 = 1R2 = IR3 = IRn (Same)

Current is equal all around a series circuit

 SIMPLE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
Current (Amp)
Meter
A

IT = 4A
EA
12V Resistor R1 = ______?
BATTERY

CURRENT FLOW

Electric current is measured in series with an amp meter

 A Simple Series Circuit

RT = 100 
R1 EA = 200V
20  IT = 2A

R2
ER1 = 40V
EA=__? 30  ER2 = 60V
ER3 = 100V
PT = 400W
PR1 = 80W
2A

R3 50  PR2 = 120W
PR3 = 200W
2
 Power
The instantaneous RATE at
which work
is done is called the electric
power rate.
This rate is measured in WATTS.
WATTS
More commonly known as
KiloWatts per hour (kW/pH)
 DC Power
• Power is equal to Current times Voltage or
P=IxE

• Unit of measurement is wattage or watts

• Other power formulas are I2R and E2/R

“OPEN” in a Series Circuits
(A malfunction or fault)
R1 Broken
20 Ohms

30 Ohms
50 Ohms

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + RN (Add)
R1 = Infinite Ohms
Current will not flow (I = 0)
Voltage drop across R1 = applied E
 Open in a Series Circuit

IT = 1mA
ER1 = 30V
ER2 = 10V
ER3 = 10V R1 30k
RT = 50k
50V
R2 10k
IT = 0mA
R3 10k
ER1 = 50V
ER2 = 0V
ER3 = 0V
R1 =   Using current, voltage and resistance
measurements to identify a open.

7
“SHORT” in a Series Circuit
R1 Shorted

20 Ohms

30 Ohms
R2

50 Ohms

R3
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + RN (Add)
R1=.00000000001 OHMS
Voltage drop of shorted resistor = 0
Total current in circuit will increase
A SHORT in a circuit DECREASE’S circuit resistance
causing an INCREASE in circuit current. Value of a
shorted resistor is 0 Ohms.
IT = 1mA
ER1 = 30V
ER2 = 10V
ER3 = 10V R1 30k
RT = 50k
50V
R2 10k
IT = 2.5mA
R3 10k
ER1 = 0V
ER2 = 25V
ER3 = 25V
RT = 20k Using current, voltage and resistance
measurements to identify a short.

7
ES R1 R2

PATH 1

PATH 2
 IT=7.5A IR2=2.5A

R1 R2
50V 10 IR1=5A 20

IT=7.5A
 Parallel Circuits
• ET = ER1 = ER2 = ER3 = ERN (Same (=)
• IT = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + IRN (Additive)
• Resistance is calculated one of 3 ways

1 Product
Reciprocal Sum
Method RT = 1 1 1 1 For 2
R1 + R2 + R3 + RN resistors in
parallel

10Ω

20Ω 10Ω 20Ω 30Ω

20Ω
Two Unlike Resistors In Parallel
• Resistor sizes are 20 and 30 ohms.
• Total resistance is:
– Product over the sum method
– Two resistors at a time
– (20Ω x 30Ω) / (20Ω + 30Ω) = 600Ω/50Ω =
12Ω

20Ω 30Ω
 Resistors In Parallel Circuits
100/3 = 33.33 Ohms

100 Ohms

100 Ohms

100 Ohms
Like Method – Take the value of
one resistor and divide by the
number of resistors

Yields the same

results

1
RT = 1 1 1 1
R1 + R2 + R3 + RN
 Parallel Circuit Characteristics
• The circuit resistance (RT) of a parallel
circuit is always less than the smallest
branch resistance.

• As parallel branches are added circuit

resistance decreases. Opposite of
series circuit.
 Voltage in Parallel Circuits

R2=20 Ohms

R3=30 Ohms
R1=10 Ohms
ET=100 Volts

E=100 Volts

E=100 Volts

E=100 Volts
Voltage in Parallel is constant like Current is in Series

Current is additive in Parallel like Voltage is in Series

 Current in Parallel Circuits

R2=40 Ohms

R3=50 Ohms
R1=10 Ohms
ET=10 Volts

IR2=.25 A
IR1=1 A

IR3=.2 A
IT = IR1 + IR2 + IR 3 + IRN = 1.45 A

The sum of the current flowing through each branch

or node will equal the total circuit current
 Batteries In Parallel

CCA = 425 + CCA = 550 = 975 CCA

CCA = Cold Cranking Amps

•Batteries in parallel: the current capability
increases and the voltage remains constant.

•In parallel - to - and + to +.

 Batteries In Parallel

R1
12 V 12 V 12 V 12 V

Batteries connected Negative to Negative and

Positive to Positive.
Must be same value. ET= E1 = E2 = E3 = E4
Advantage increased current capability.
 Parallel Troubleshooting

RT or (REQ) = 2.73K 40V

IT = 14.67mA
IR1= 8mA
IR2= 4mA
IR3= 2.66mA
40V
R140V R2
40V R3
IT = 6.67mA
5K 10K 15K
RT = 6K 10K
IR1 = 0mA
A A A
R1 = 
8

R1 is Open
A

8
Open Resistors in Parallel
Circuits

R1=100 Ohms

R3=100 Ohms
R2=100 Ohms
No Break 100/3 = 33.33 Ohms
Break 100/2 = 50 Ohms
 Shorts in Parallel Circuits
R3 Shorted = Approx .000000001 Ohms
RT = Minimum and IT = Maximum

R1=100 Ohms

R2=100 Ohms

R3=100 Ohms
No Short 100 / 3 = 33.33 Ohms
 RT or (REQ) = 2.73K
IT = 14.67mA 40V
IR1= 8mA
IR2= 4mA
IR3= 2.66mA

IT = max
R1 R2 R3
RT = 0
5K 10K 15K

A A A
R1, R2, or R3 Shorted

Short in parallel shorts the entire parallel (RT (Req) = 0)

A short in a parallel makes the circuit Voltage = 0 4

Resistance, Voltage, and Current
In Parallel

R1 R2 R2
ET=10 V
50 Ohms 50 Ohms 50 Ohms

ET=
IT=
RT=
 Resistance, Voltage, and
Current In Parallel

R1 R2 R2
ET=10 V
50 Ohms 50 Ohms 50 Ohms

ET=10 V
IT=.6 A
RT=16.66 Ohms
Series Parallel Resistors PE
R100 Ω

10V DC R300 R300 R300

Ω Ω Ω

R100 Ω

Calculate RT, IT, and ET

 Series Parallel Resistors PE
10 5

60 V DC 5 15 6 3

5 8

Calculate RT, IT, and ET

 DC PE
R1=5

R2 = 12 R3 = 4
IR2= 1A IR3 = 3A

R4 = 7

RT=_____ IR1=_____ ER1=_____PT=_____

IT=_____ IR4=_____ ER4=_____
ET=_____
 Review
• Describe the properties of valence
shell(conductor, semi-conductor and insulator

• Explain laws of attraction and repelling on

ions

• Explain the advantages of adding series and

parallel batteries
Questions
Alternating Current
Fundamentals
 A.C. Learning Objectives
• Describe alternating current

• State the advantages of A.C. over D.C.

• Define: frequency, hertz, cycles per second, and

time/period

• Calculate: RMS, peak, and peak to peak voltage

• Determine the relationship of wavelength,

frequency, and antenna length
Alternating Current
Definition Of Alternating Current
• Voltage is constantly
changing amplitude
and current is
periodically changing
direction
Magnetism – “Another force of nature”
Used to create AC

S N
 Requirements for AC

DIRECTION OF
I CONDUCTOR MOTION
MOTION

FLUX

CURRENT S
N
Induced
Voltage
LEFT-HAND I I Conductor
GENERATOR RULE
 Max EMF

900
450
1350
3600
00 1800
Lines
Of 3150
flux
2250
2700 Max EMF
Wire
Coil
Position A B C D E
One Alternation
One Cycle
 Alternating Current
• U.S. 120 V 60 Hz

• Europe 240 V 50 Hz

• Aircraft 400 V 400 Hz

 Alternating Current Advantages

• More efficient: “CAN BE STEPPED UP OR

STEPPED DOWN”

• Less loss in power lines (heat)

• Safer to transmit over

long distances

• Size of wire
Frequency, Period/Time Alternation

90

180 360
0

270

Frequency/cycles per second = # of 360 degree

waves in one second.
 Frequency And Time
• Frequency is measured in Hertz or
cycles per second (cps)

• The power company in the United States

sends you 60 complete 360 degree waves
every second or 60 Hz

• Time/Period is referred to as how long does

it take for one complete wave or cycle
 Period/Time & Frequency Of An
AC Wave
• Time equals 1 divided by the frequency

• Frequency equals 1 divided by time

• Example: If the time is .0001 sec then the frequency is

10,000 Hz

• If the frequency is 1,000,000 Hz then the time is .000001 sec.

 1
Period = -----
Time it takes to complete
One Sine Wave (Time) F

Frequency = 1
N
Number of Sine Waves
In One Second P (T)
RMS, Peak, and Peak-to-Peak
Peak 1.414
.707
170 V
RMS
120 V

340 V
Peak-
To-
Peak
 RMS (root mean square) = Effective
voltage of a sine wave. Also known as the
DC equivalent of an AC signal. Calculated
by multiplying Peak E by .707

I MAX = I MAX =
1 Ampere 1 Ampere

DC R=R AC

100o C 70.7o C

(A) (B)
 Wavelength
• The physical distance traveled during one
complete cycle
• Indicated by the Greek symbol lambda
• C is the speed of light or 300,000,000 meters
per second (3 X 108 Meters/Second)
C C
wavelength  frequency 
Frequency wavelength

300, 000, 000 3EE 8

wavelength  wavelength 
Frequency Frequency
 Antenna Length/Frequency
Practical Exercise
• What are the advantages of using higher carrier frequencies?
requires shorter antenna and less power
• Antenna wavelengths convert to frequency full wave:
C
frequency 
( wavelength )
– 150 meters= 2 MHz
– 1 meter= 300 MHz
– .25 meters=1.2 GHz

3x10 8 3 x108
FM  6 meters SHF ( Satellite) .0375 meter
50MHz 8GHz

3x108 3 x108
UHF  .5 meter HF ( AM ) 30 meters
600 MHz 10MHz
 Antennas
• The higher the frequency the shorter
the wavelength
• The shorter the wavelength the shorter
the antenna (electrically speaking) and
the less power required to transmit the
signal
• Antenna and Wavelength are directly
proportional / Frequency and
wavelength are ______________ 
 Review
• Describe alternating current

• State the advantages of A.C. over D.C.

• Define: frequency, hertz, cycles per second,

and time/period

• Calculate: RMS, peak, and peak to peak voltage

• Determine the relationship of wavelength,

frequency, and antenna length
 AC Practical Exercise
• Frequency equals 10,000 HZ, time/period equals?
.0001 or 100uS
• Time/period equals 1us, what is the frequency?1 MHz
• Peak to peak equals 200 volts, what are peak and
RMS values? 100; 70.7
• 1 volt RMS equals_____
1.414 volts peak?
• What is the advantage of countries using 240 VAC?
Twice the power or watts (240 vs. 120) using the same
current equals more efficiency (less I equals less heat
(LOSS)

• Define frequency and period.

- F=# of 360o sine waves in one second
- P=the amount of time for one 360o sine
wave/cycle to occur
Questions
Capacitance, Inductance, and
Transformers
 Capacitance Learning
Objectives
• Definition
• Capacitor
• Capacitance
• Factors that increase capacitance
• Losses in capacitors
• Symbol/unit
 Capacitors
• Two metal plates separated by a
dielectric (insulator)

• Capacitors “store energy” in an

electrostatic field

• Capacitance: the physical properties of a

capacitor that opposes “changes” in
voltage

• ICE: Current leads voltage by 90o

Physical Properties And Losses
In Capacitors
• Size of plates
• Distance between plates
• Dielectric constant of insulator
• Capacitor losses are
– Dielectric hysteresis
– Dielectric leakage
 CAPACITORS
Stores energy in an electrostatic field and
opposes a change in Voltage

Plate
Plate

Dielectric
 FIXED
- +
ELECTROLYTIC
VARIABLE

GANGED
 Characteristics of a Capacitor in a DC Circuit

Capacitor will charge up to the value of the applied

voltage
(1) R

(2)
+ +
Charge
Path
C
- -
Changing the position of the switch allows the capacitor

to discharge. Capacitors are used mostly in AC circuits

(1) R

(2)
+ +
Discharge
Path
C
- -
 Capacitors in Series

Distance
between plates
C1

1
Distance
between plates
C2
CT = 1 1
+
C1 C2 (A)
Calculated the same
CT
as resistors in parallel

Relative Distance between plates 

Capacitance in series 
(B)
 Two capacitors in series

C2
EA .01fd

10V 50KHz 1
1
CT = 1 1
+
CT 1 1
C1
= .001 + .01
C1 C2

CT = .0009fd
.001fd
Capacitors in series are calculated
the same as Resistors in parallel using
Reciprocal, Product over the Sum, or
the Like method
 Capacitors in Parallel

C1 C2

Area Area
of plates of plates
(A)
CT = C1+C2
CT
No change in
distance between
plates

Area of plates 
Capacitance in parallel  (B)
 Capacitors in Parallel

C1 C2 C3 CT = C1 + C2 + C3
CT = .15 +.15 +.15
.15fd .15fd .15fd
CT = .45ufd

Capacitors in parallel will increase the capacitance in the

circuit. Consequently they are treated like resistors in
series. Simply add up each capacitors value.

3
 Inductance
• Definition
• Inductor
• Inductance
• Factors that increase inductance
• Power losses in inductors
• Symbol/unit
 Inductors
Inductors
Stores energy in an electromagnetic field and
opposes “changes” in current

Inductor
 Inductor

• Inductor: a coil of wire with air or iron

core

• Inductors “store energy” in an

electromagnetic field

• Inductance: the physical properties of

an inductor that opposes “change’s” in
current flow
Physical Properties And Losses In Inductors

• Amount of windings
• Diameter of windings
• Permeability
• Inductor losses are:
– Copper losses
– Eddy current loss
– Hysteresis loss
Inductor, Iron Core Inductor, Air Core

Variable, Air Core

S N N S

- + + -

LEFT HAND RULE FOR COILS

 Conductor

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
(CLOCKWISE)
 Conductor

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
(COUNTERCLOCKWISE)
 A A

B B

+ +
- -

I I

Inductor Action In Dc Circuit. Inductors magnetic

field will expand and collapse as the polarity
across the inductor changes. Used primarily in
AC applications where inductor charges with the
applied frequency. “Voltage leads current in an AC
Inductive circuit”
Inductors in series are treated like resistors in series.
Calculate total inductance by simply adding up the
Inductors.
L1 L2

5mh 5mh

Inductors In Series
L3 L4

10mh 10mh

LT = L1+L2+L3+L4
LT = 5mH + 5mH + 10mH + 10mH
LT = 30mH
3
 Inductors in parallel are treated like resistors in
parallel.
To calculate total inductance use the reciprocal method,
product over the sum or the like method.

L1 L2 L3
1 2mh 3mh 6mh
LT =
1 1 + 1
+
L1 L2 L3

Inductors In Parallel
1
LT = 1
500 + 333 + 167
=
LT 1 + 1 + 1
2 x 10 -3 3 x 10 -3 6 x 10 -3

1
LT = =
1000 LT 1mH
Questions
 Practical Exercise
• Define inductor, inductance, capacitor, capacitance

• Calculate in series 3 cap 1uF, 2 uF, and 3uF

• Calculate in parallel 3 cap 1uF, 2 uF, and 3uF

• Calculate in series 3 inds .1H, .002 H, and .03H

• Calculate in parallel 3 inds .1H, .002H, and .03H

 Transformer Learning
Objectives
• Identify transformers as step up or
down.
• Explain parts of a transformer.
• Describe an ideal transformer.
• Calculate current, voltage and power in
transformers.
• Describe applications of transformers.
• Define mutual inductance.
 TRANSFORMERS

Transfer energy though electromagnetic

induction and mutual induction

Construction
Input
Core Primary Core

Primary Secondary
Winding Winding
Secondary

Schematic
 2
1 3
Core

Primary Secondary
Two dots above a transformer indicates the phase
relationship between the primary and the
secondary of the transformer

180o OUT OF PHASE In Phase

RL RL
P S P S
 1:3
Np = 200 Ns = 600
Step Up Transformer
One to Three Ratio
RL

3:1
Np = 600 Ns = 200
Step Down Transformer
Three to One Ratio
RL

B
 A step-up Transformer

1 : 3

10VPP 30VPP
10V x 3A = 30W 30V x 1A = 30W
Primary power Secondary power

3A 1A
Step Up Transformer – Voltage increases, “steps
up”, and current decreases proportionately.

Power calculations (P = I x E) (Watts) MUST

be equal on the primary and the secondary.
Step Down Transformer - Voltage goes down
and
current goes up – Power remains constant
5 : 1

25V 5V
1A 5A
P=IxE
25W (Primary) 5V x 5A = 25W
(Secondary)
 CENTER-TAPPED TRANSFORMER – Splits the secondary
voltage in to 2 equal in magnitude (E) and 180 degrees out of
phase signals.

30 VAC

2
20 VAC 60 VAC

30 VAC

3
1:3
Questions
Transformers Practical Exercise
5:1
SOLVE: E=? 10V
I=? 1A

P/P = ? P/S = ?
1:3
50V E=?

3A I=?

P/P = ? P/S = ?
 P.E. Continued
• A transformers primary is 100k watts of power and
the output is 87.5 watts. What is its efficiency??
• Define mutual inductance.
• If the primary has 2 windings and the output has
four windings what is the turns ratio? What type
of transformer is it? What is the input voltage if
the output is 100 volts?
• What is the relationship between I and E in
transformers?
• Can DC voltage be coupled across transformers?
 Review
• Identify transformers as step up or down.

• Explain parts of a transformer.

• Describe an ideal transformer.

• Calculate current, voltage and power in transformers.

• Describe applications of transformers.

• Define mutual inductance.

 Antenna Tuning Concept
• Adding inductance electrically
lengthens antenna.

• Adding capacitance electrically

shortens antenna.

• Antenna matching units use variable

inductors and capacitors to tune over a
wide range of frequencies.
Questions
Grounding
 Learning Objectives

• State the purpose of a grounding system

• Identify the three types of ground
• Explain the methods of improving grounding
systems
• State the minimum resistance required for a
tactical ground
• Identify the parts of a grounding system
• Explain temperature, moisture, type of soil and
length and diameter of ground rods in
relationship to quality of grounding systems
 Ground Terminology
• Earth grounding electrode
– Plates, pipes, rods
• Earth grounding
– A conductive connection between an electrical circuit or equipment and
the earth
• Equipment grounding conductor
– Ties all non-current carrying parts or an equipment together and back to
the power source. Intended to carry current only during a fault condition
• Ground fault
– Hot wire (black) shorts to case of equipment. Short circuit is between
two carrying conductors
• Grounded conductor
– Current carrying conductor like neutral (white/gray wire)
 Grounding Resistance
• Tactical grounds maximum resistance is 25
ohms
• Fixed station grounds maximum resistance
is 10 Ohms and are usually read by post
civil engineers
• Many 30 KW and above use three grounds
• Exercises in tundra areas usually bring
large metal objects

Schematic
symbols for
ground
A ground is a conducting path, whether intentional or
accidental, by which an electrical circuit or equipment is
connected to a reference (0 volt / 0 ohm potential point.

                                                                                                

                            
 Purpose Of Grounds
• To provide a common (0 volt) reference point

• Protection of people and equipment

• Reduction of noise and interference

• Provide return circuits

 Types Of Ground

Earth

Chassis

Equipment
 Basic Grounding Systems

Ground rods

 
Large metal plates
                                        

Large buried metal objects

Metal fence

Water faucets
 Grounds
If lightning is in area use extreme caution

Star
Vehicle

Surface Wire Grounding Rods

System (SWGS)
Ground Path Parts

Grounding strap

Ground rod

Soil Farm soil (Loam)

Clay
Rod/soil Sand
Contact area Gravel
Shale
 Ground Wire And Connection
• Good conductor

• Continuous - unbroken

• Tight connections

• Reasonably straight
 Ground Electrodes (All Types)
• Must be metallic

• The bigger/the more the better

• Must be clean

6 feet (new will be 8 feet)

 Soil Contact Area
• Firm/total contact with the soil

• The deeper (into the soil) the better

 Soil Resistance
• Type of soil
– Best - fine soil with high moisture content
– Good - clay, loam, or shale
– Poor - clay, loam, or shale mixed with gravel
– Very poor - gravel, sand, or stone
• Temperature of soil
– Frozen ground increases resistance
• Moisture content of soil
– Wet soil decreases resistance
• Depth of soil
– The deeper the better
 Improving Grounds
• Treatment of the soil
– Salt and water

• Parallel grounds
– 3, 75 ohm grounds = 25 ohms

• Combination of the above

 Spacing Parallel Rods
3 separate earth shells

6-10ft spacing
Effectively 1 earth shell

Rods too close

 Grounding Procedure Soil
Classification
RESISTANCE IN OHMS OF GROUND
CONNECTION (ONE 5- FOOT ROD, 5/8 INCH
DIAMETER)
TYPE OF SOIL
AVERAGE MINIMUM MAXIMUM

FILLS, ASHES,CINDERS,
14 3 41
BRINE WASTE

CLAY, SHALE, GUMBO,

24 2 90
LOAM

SAME, WITH VARYING

PROPORTIONS OF SAND 93 6 800
AND GRAVEL

GRAVEL, SAND, STONES

WITH LITTLE 544 35 2700
CLAY OR LOAM
Chemically Improving Grounds
Co Caution environmental restrictions
pp
er
su Chemical
lfa ide
te Treatment or
(b chl
lu
e l ci um
vit Ca
rio
l) Potassium nitrate (saltpeter)
) Ma
salt gn
b le es
ium
(ta
r i de su
lfa
o
chl te
(Ep
d ium so
So m
sa
lt s)
1 lb of salt to gallon of water
Once a week for 4 weeks then once a month
Artificial Treatment Of A Ground
Connection

Lead Wire 36”

Soil
Removed

Salt &
Water Ground Rod
 Horizontal Ground Rods
• If wire at least 2.5 feet deep and 2 AWG
cable 10 feet, add salt and water, fill
trench and pack dirt. Do second one if
dry, sandy or gravel.
 Review
• State the purpose of a grounding system
• Identify the three types of ground
• Explain the methods of improving grounding
systems
• State the minimum resistance required for a tactical
ground
• Identify the parts of a grounding system
• Explain temperature, moisture, type of soil and
length and diameter of ground rods in relationship to
quality of grounding systems
Questions
Power Distribution
 Power Distribution Planning
• The student will be able to:
– Compute the relationship between volt-amp, (VA), watts (W)
and power factor (Pf) using the formula: W = VA * Pf.
– State the relationship between each phase of a three phase
generator and its power output.
– Compute total power requirements for resistive and reactive
loads in watts and volt-amps.
– Select the proper generator to supply power in prescribed
situations.
– State the considerations for power distribution planning.
– State the common power factor value which is engineered
into U.S. Army generators.
 Power Distribution
• Reference: FM 20-31
• What is a generator?
– A device that converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy by using an engine to drive the generator
• 120V RMS 60 Hz for U.S. operation
• 240V RMS 50 Hz for most other countries
• 400V and 400 Hz for aircraft
• What is a phase?
– A hot line with one of the voltages listed in item 2, 3, or 4
 Power Distribution
• What happens if you plug a 240V RMS bulb into a 120V RMS outlet?
– Bulb would be very dim
• What happens if you plug 400V, 400 Hz aircraft fan into 120V RMS
outlet?
– It turns very slow
• What happens if you play your cassette (belt driven) in Germany
even if you stepped 240V to 120V?
– It still sounds like Donald Duck due to 50 Hz.
• How do we get 240V civilian or 208V military in the U.S.A.?
– We use two phases/hotlines
• Why use the higher voltage not 120v RMS?
– Half the current equals the same amount of power and the
more current the less efficient
 Power Output Effected By
• Turns on stator

• Speed

• Strength of exciter field

• Small units- governor controls speed

• Larger units- voltage regulator

 Generator Rating
• Tactical generators are rated in KW at a
specified Pf. (Usually .8)

• Power Factor of .8 is an average for

most items

• An output delivered at 50 Hertz is 82%

of the rated power

• An output delivered at 60 Hertz is 100%

of the rated power
Generator Data Plate
 Tactical Power

• Single phase
Power goes to 0 three times in 1 cycle
0, 180, and 360 degrees

T= 0 12 34 5 6 7 8

• Three phase
Power never goes to 0. One phase always has
a magnitude. 3 Phase power is more efficient
than single phase. Easier to start, less
vibration and efficiency reduces operating cost.
 Electric Distribution Systems
Single-phase, 2-wire: 1 Live wire and 1 neutral, also called
grounded wire. Use for any single-phase 2 wire, 120-volt load. Light
Bulbs, potable tools, most anything requiring low power.

Single-phase, 3-wire: 2 live wires and 1 grounded wire. No phase

difference between 2 live wires. Potential between ground and any
live wire is 120-volts. Both live wire potential is 240-volts. Small loads
such as lighting in barracks.

3 Phase, 3 Wire: All 3 wires are hot or live. A 3 phase-3 wire,120 volt
load can be connected to all 3 wires. Output or “line” voltage is 1.732
(√ of 3) times “phase” voltage, 120V. Line voltage is 208-volts. Supplies
substantial amounts of power such as shops and hospitals.

3-Phase, 4-Wire: Generator can produce single-phase or 3-phase

Voltages. Can produce 120V, 208V, or 240V, and 416V. 240/416 line
voltage produce between 15kW and 500kW of power.
 Phase E x √3 or 1.73 x 120V

120/208 3 Ph gives 208V line V.

L2 L1
WYE Configuration
L3
L0

120 3 Ph
L1
L2

DELTA Configuration
L3
L0
Single Phase Generator

Black
N White
S S Return
N
Arrangement Of 3 Phase Star
Alternator Phase 1

S S
Phase 2
N

Phase 3
Neutral
White
W
120/208 3 Ph
L2 L1
WYE Configuration
L3
L0

120 3 Ph
L1
L2

L3
DELTA Configuration
L0
120/240 1 Ph
L2 L1

L3
L0

120 1 Ph
L1
L2

L3
L0
 Types Of Distribution Systems
• Single-phase two-wire
– Wall outlet with no green wire
• Single-phase three-wire
– Wall outlet with green wire (hot, return and ground)
• Three-phase three-wire
– Three 120VAC hot lines (use 208VAC operation)
• Three-phase four-wire
– Three hot lines and return (use 208 or 120VAC
operation)
 Power Calculation
• DC circuits
• P=IE
• AC circuits
• P=IE + phase angle 0-90 (cos of Φ)
– 0o phase shift: indicates resistive: all power
used
– 90o phase shift indicates reactive (capacitors
or inductors): stored energy returned to
source Mostly seen in Inductive Loads
– ELI
 Power Factor In Electrical Systems
Resistive Reactive
E

I
EI
P (In Watts) = Resistive Plus Stored
Volts X Amps
P (In Watts) = Volts X
AMPS X or ./. by Phase
Angle
AC Generator L1
Load
C1
R1
Reactive components
like motor coils or R1
All the source energy starter capacitors:
is used by the load AC Generator Power returned to
Represented by R1 Source.
 The Power Factor Formulas

KW True Power – Pwr used

Ckr acts resistively

KVA PF

Apparent Power
Measured in VA • 1 resistive = heaters and lights
When I and E are out
of phase: Inductive •.8 standard for all others
or capacitive loads
 Planning And Installation
Considerations
• Determine the connected load
– Communications system power requirements
– Auxiliary power requirements
• Other considerations
– Demand load
– Demand factor
– Diversity factor
– Phase distribution
– Cable loss
 Connected Load

• All equipment in the shelter/tent/room

that is either turned on or off, plugged
in or not plugged in.

• Ensure that all equipment in tents and

other shelters that may use power from
your shelter are included.
 Auxiliary Power Requirements
• Includes any electrical equipment on site
that is not part of the communications
system power requirements: (includes but
not limited to)
– Coffee pots
– Hair dryers
– Refrigerators
– Televisions
– Microwave Oven
– Etc:
Inventory All Electrical Items
 Demand Load
• Consists of all electrical equipment
operating at the same time

• Must be completed because all

equipment is seldom operated at the
same time

• Must be accomplished during peak

operating periods
 Demand Factor
• Equals ratio of the actual demand
divided by the total connected load:
(example):

• Actual demand (busiest hour) = 40 KVA

• Total connected load = 50 KVA

• Demand factor (40/50) = .8 (or) 80

percent
 Load Balancing
• Applies only to single phase
equipment/shelters hooked into three
phase generators
• Means balancing the total single phase
equipment load equally between each of
the three phases within (+ or - 10%)
• Required because generators seek to
supply the power each phase is drawing
• Unbalanced loads result in:
– Poor voltage regulation
– Damage to generators
Questions