• FLOOR AND FLOOR COVERINGS

Introduction
Floors are literally the basis of a house both practically and aesthetically. They are the surface for the walk, to sit and
to lie down. Floor may be required to provide sound and heat insulation or to take heavy traffic and is the setting for
furniture arrangement and possessions. Since it forms the large part of the surface area of any room, its color,
pattern and texture will have a dominant effect on the decorative scheme. The floor is a basic surface in the building
and also a very important surface in a room for visual attraction. Therefore, it has both aesthetic and practical role to
play and it is imperative to our comfort and sense of ease.
From health point of view floor can be a critical component of workplace safety. Most people give little thought to
the flooring while working and while walking unless they slip or fall. Therefore, a strategic focusing on the design,
selection and maintenance of flooring is required.The type of floor also makes an important contribution to the
character of the home i.e whether it is selected based on style or period. Therefore, flooring needs consideration of
factors while selecting the flooring materials
•Following are the different types of flooring materials generally used in building construction
works:
•Cement or lime concrete
•Bricks
•Terrazo flooring
•Stone flooring (Marble, granite, Slate)
•Wood
•Glass
•Ceramic
•Vinyl
•Cork
•Asphalt
•Rubber
• Cement Concrete Flooring Material in Buildings :
• The method of laying cement concrete flooring on ground floor of a building can be broadly divided in the
following steps.
• (i) Preparation of sub-base:
• The earth filling in plinth is consolidated thoroughly so as to ensure that no loose pockets are left in the whole
area. A 10 to 15 cm. thick layer of clean coarse sand is then spread over the whole area. The sand layer a
consolidated and dressed to the required level and slope.
• (ii) Laying of base concrete:
• The base concrete used under floors may be cement concrete or lime concrete laid to a thickness varying
from 75 to 10 cm. In case of cement concrete, the mix commonly used is 1:5:10 (1 cement: 5 sand : 10 stone
or over burnt brick aggregates 40 mm. nominal size). Lime concrete, if used, should be made up out of 40 mm.
nominal size stone/over burnt brick aggregate and 40% mortar comprising of 1 lime : 2 sand/surkhi or 1 lime :
1 surkhi/ash : 1 sand. The base concrete layer is deposited over the whole area, thoroughly lamped and
levelled to a rough surface.
• (iii) Laying the topping:
• When the base concrete layer has fully set and hardened, its surface is thoroughly cleaned and the entire
area is divided into rectangular or square panels by use of 4 mm, thick glass strips or 5 mm, thick plain
asbestos strips. The size of panel is basically governed by the location of floor (exposed or indoor),
temperature and other climatic conditions, thickness of topping and proportions of ingredients in concrete
mix. etc. In general, the area of one such panel should not preferably be more than 2 sq. m. The surface of
base concrete should be made damp and applied with a coat of neat cement slurry prior to laying the
topping., The rough finished surface of base concrete coated with cement slurry ensures adequate bond
between the base and the topping. The cement concrete topping, normally consisting of 1:2:4 (1 cement :2
sand : 4 stone aggregate) is then laid in required thickness in one operation in the panels. The concrete is
spread evenly by using a straight edge and the surface is thoroughly tamped.
• The surface is then smoothened and finally finished by means of steel trowels
• In order to prevent the tendency of separation of the. cement concrete flooring from the R.C.C. slab, a 20
mm. thick cushioning layer of lime mortar (1 lime : 2 sand/surkhi or/lime : 1 surkhi/sand) or 50 to 75 mm.
thick lime concrete is sometimes provided between the R.C.C. slab and the cement concrete flooring.
• The flooring should be cured for 10 days before use.
• Merits of cement concrete flooring:
• It is non-absorbent and thus it is very useful for water stores.
• It is durable and hence it is commonly used in kitchens, bathrooms, schools, hospitals, drawing rooms
etc.
• cement concrete flooring smooth and pleasing in appearance.
• It is economical and has the advantages of costlier types of floors.
• It possesses good wearing properties and can be easily maintained clean.

• Demerits of cement concrete flooring:

• Defects in carelessly made floor cannot be rectified, and as such, it requires proper attention while
laying.
• Cement concrete flooringcannot be satisfactorily repaired by patch work.
• Installation of terrazzo flooring :
• Terrazzo flooring is composed of composite material. It contains any variety of mixture of aggregate chips like stone or
marble and either epoxy resin or concrete. It can be used both indoors and outdoors and can be poured as concrete or laid in
tiles. Initially used primarily in commercial buildings, it has become more popular in homes, not just as flooring, but also as a
material for kitchen surfaces like countertops and backsplashes. The colors and flecks are customizable, allowing for a wide
range of design possibilities. Floors done with terrazzo are comparatively light and durable as they come.
• Clean Thoroughly
• A traditional terrazzo job consists of a cement and aggregate mix spread over a concrete slab to a depth of about half an inch.
installers will remove loose concrete with shot-blasting. In this process, an installer removes the top layer of concrete to help
reinforce a strong bond between the concrete and the terrazzo.
• Floor Preparation and Leveling a Terrazzo Floor
• Next, installers will mitigate any cracking in the concrete surface. If an installer identifies any cracks present, then they must
fill in the cracks before moving forward. In addition to adding a crack suppression system, installers will check for any
moisture-related issues in the flooring.  If moisture is present in the flooring, then we recommend considering the use of a
moisture mitigation system. This system soaks into the concrete, sealing the pores as it builds a thin layer over the surface.
• Sometimes the floor levels are out of tolerance as well. If this is the case, then an installer will level the floor. Taking a
flexible membrane, the surface is coated so that the terrazzo will flow across the concrete.
• Design Layout of a Terrazzo Floor
• Installers will then develop how the floor will look.  During this step, the installers will cut divider strips to separate colors
and to control expansion joints.  Using divider strips are a great way to add an intricate design to any space.
Mixing Terrazzo
With the layout in place, it is now time to create the terrazzo mixture. Based on specifications, the installers
carefully measure components and develops the material using mixing equipment.
Pouring the Terrazzo
With the terrazzo mix created with a Part A epoxy and Part B hardener, it is now time for the installer to add the
epoxy to the flooring surface. Using a trowel, an installer spreads the epoxy mix across the membrane. During
this process, an installer evenly distributes additional aggregates like marble chips and recycled glass over the
floor. The floor will then begin to cure.
Grinding a Terrazzo Floor
Once the terrazzo floor has cured, an installer will use a grinding machine to smooth out the floor.
Grouting Terrazzo
It is during the grinding stage that the installer will apply a grout mixture to remove any pin holes if available.
Polishing a Terrazzo Floor
To finish the terrazzo installation process, the installer adds polish to give the floor its shine. Installers will also
apply a sealer to give extra protection to the floor.
• Installation of stone flooring
• 1. Cleaning:
• The base of the floor should be cleaned by chiseling the remnants of mortar mix or leftover loose concrete. The
pieces of brickbats, aggregate wastes, formwork chips, etc. should be scrapped or removed from the PCC
surface.
• 2. Hacking:The floor base or PCC surface should be hacked at regular intervals as per the specification. The
hacking work can be done by using the cutter tools or by an appropriate chisel. After hacking, the base should
be cleaned by removing the chipped materials.The floor base should be washed with water to remove dirt &
other adhered particles. 

• 3. Cement slurry:
• The cement slurry of the lean mix should be evenly spread over the hacked surface. Cement slurry helps to
achieve good bonding between the mortar & the existing floor base.
• 4. Spreading mortar:
• Mortar of the required proportion should be prepared & spread over the floor base. Usually, the mortar of
a 1:6 ratio is used while installing the marble flooring. The mortar should be prepared in batches to cover the
smaller area of the floor base. 
• We have to keep in mind that the prepared volume of mortar should be consumed within 2 to 3 hours time.
Preparing the larger mortar volume to cover the entire floor area of a day's work should be avoided. 
• 5. Marking level:

The top level of the flooring should be marked or transferred to the 4 corners of the room as shown in the above
drawing. Piece of marble, i.e. used in flooring work should be temporarily laid at the room corners as a benchmark for
the required slope & level.
• 6. Leveling mortar:
• By holding the lineout string over the benchmark marble piece, the mortar should be leveled uniformly. The
top level of the mortar should be floor level minus the marble thickness. A marble piece should be used
beneath the string to reassure the mortar top level.
• The leveled mortar should be grooved or indented by a trowel & cement slurry should be poured over them.
The entire mortar surface should be grooved to its depth & the prepared slurry should enter those grooves for
homogeneous bonding.

• 7. Laying marble:A marble slab should be laid over the prepared mortar. The laying work should be started
from one end of the room. The string is held over the benchmark level & the marble slab is tapped to match
the string bottom. 
• A wooden log or rubber mallet is used for gently tapping or hammering the floor top to achieve the level.
• 8. Successive laying:
• Before laying the next slab, the edge of the pre-laid marble tile or slab should be cleaned or wiped with
clothes. The next slab piece is laid in line & level with the pre-laid tile. They should touch one another
without a gap in their junction line. The edges of the two pieces should match accurately without any level
difference.
• The same procedure is followed for laying all the marble tiles or slabs till the complete floor work is done.
•
9. Grouting:The floor joint should be racked & wiped with a clean cloth. White cement or suitable grouting
material should be used to fill the joints. The color of the filler material should be selected or prepared to
match the marble design.

• 10. Polishing:
• Once the floor is hardened or set, the polishing & waxing of the surface is made to gain the required finish.
• Glass flooring: Glass is used as flooring material for special conditions like to transmit light from upper floor
to lower floor etc. They are available in tiles which are fixed in closely spaced frames. Even though it is very
costly it provides beautiful appearance. Usually made of a toughened glass which is also laminated for
structural strength, a transparent floor is most commonly used as a tourist attraction. Glass-bottom boats are
popular for allowing a better view into the body of water. The assembly shall consist of glass floor panels
installed on steel framing and sealed with structural silicone. A basic configuration consists of structural glass
panels supported on all four sides by an open, L angled steel grid system.
• Typical Glass Floor Components
• Toughened glass, Laminated with a clear, approx. 1.5mm PVB Film interlayer to another layer of Toughened
glass (all edges polished). The thickness of the Glass will be determined by the area to be covered and
specification required.
• Typical Metal Support Framing
• The framework will vary depending on the glass panels to be supported and the surroundings they will be
fitted into. A standard frame could consist of 50 x 50 x 6mm thick steel L angles which can be in a stainless
steel, powder coated or a spray painted finish. Alternative framework can be supplied and fitted where
required, as determined by a structural engineer to meet performance requirements.
General Installation:
• The site will be surveyed for accurate measurement, show colour charts for the frame and any relevant glass
samples if applicable. In order for the glaziers to be able to complete the survey, the surrounds will need to
be finished so that they can take exact measurements to ensure a perfect fit. There should be four solid
surrounds, such as joists or brickwork etc in place. The steel frame will be fitted first, flush, level, and free of
warp or twist. This is usually screwed directly to the existing surrounds. If there is a large area being covered
and there are more than one panels of glass to be fitted, then structural supports may be required, but this will
be confirmed before production commences. Once all steel is in place, a supporting rubber will be placed
along the frame. The glass will then be set into position. This will then be cleaned and a structural silicone
sealant will be applied to the space between glass perimeter and frame.
• Ceramic Flooring Material in Buildings
• Ceramic tiles are famous floor covering materials. Ceramic is inorganic material and it possess properties like good
compressive resistance, brittleness and hardness etc.. The tiles themselves are generally made from a mixture of
water, sand, and clay. However, the spaces between the tiles, known as “grout,” are filled with a separate mixture of
water, sand, and “cement” like material. In some installations, the tile grout is made from epoxy instead of cement.
• What Does Ceramic Tile Look Like?
• Ceramic tile is very diverse with a myriad of options from natural stone looks to solid colors in a variety of sizes. As
you may have found during your search of ceramic tile, there are so many interesting designs that are created with
ceramic tile. Here we touch on a few trends in ceramic tiles.
• Natural stone is currently trending in designs for kitchens and bathrooms. Stone is beautiful but can carry a price tag
that is not for everyone. Ceramic in natural stone looks provides all the design aesthetic of stone without the high
price tag. With advanced options for printing on ceramic, natural stone patterns can be extremely realistic.
• While hexagons and other tile shapes enjoy bursts of popularity, a majority of tiles come in a linear rectangle or
square.
• In current interior design trends, it is more typical to see large tiles than small tiles. (That’s good news for renters
and big city homeowners since large tiles can help make small spaces look larger!) Some common ceramic tile sizes
include:
• 12” x 24”
• 24” x 24”
• 12” x 48”
• Types of Ceramic Tile
• There are three different types of ceramic tiles to choose from glazed tiles, wall tiles, and floor tiles.
What are the pros and cons of each, and which is right for you? Check out the comparisons below to
find the best match.
• Glazed Ceramic Tiles
• Glazed tiles are coated with a protective finish which can vary from matte to glossy. Matte finishes
are perfect for natural stone designs and are recommended for most applications.  Glossy ceramic
tiles are chic by finish, offering a polished look—no pun intended—to a space.  Glossy finishes are
recommended for wall installations.   
• Wall Tiles 
• Wall tiles are used in showers, backsplashes, and accent walls, to name a few applications. With the
variety of tile designs, wall tiles can really add an impressive design element to a room. They also
come in similar sizes as floor tiles. 
• Floor Tiles 
• As mentioned above, floor tiles tend to be more on the matte side of finishes. When finding a
ceramic tile you like, make sure to ask if it is suitable for floor installation.  Ceramic tile can be
extremely durable when installed as a floor.
• Where Are the Best Places to Use Ceramic Tile?
• Ceramic tiles are waterproof, which makes them a natural fit for any bathroom or shower stall, including open-
concept bathrooms with perhaps a marble look.
• Since they are non-absorbent and easy to clean, tiles are also popular in kitchens, where you might find them in
eye-catching backsplash arrangements.
• When properly treated and maintained, ceramic tile is also tough enough for outdoor use, with applications for
patios, decks, lanais, and other enclosures or courtyards.

• Installation
• Prepare the Substrate
• Ceramic tile is fragile on its own but gains strength when laid on top of a firm, inflexible surface free of gaps
and ridges. You can generally lay ceramic tile directly on a concrete slab subfloor as long as the concrete is in
good condition and free of moisture. To lay ceramic tile on plywood subfloors, the recommended substrate is a
layer of cement board.
• Dry-Fit the Tiles
• When laying ceramic tile, it's typically best to start in the middle by measuring all walls to determine the center
point for each wall. Snap a chalk line between each of the two opposing walls to create a cross pattern. Without
mortar or grout, lay out tiles and tile spacers in a line on each arm of the cross.
• If you're dry-fitting the design to lay ceramic tiles in a bathroom, it's generally recommended to start at the center
of the room. In smaller rooms, this ensures even cuts on both edges.
• In larger areas like kitchens and living rooms, tile can be laid from the center or starting on one side depending on
the size and how it fits. The idea is to avoid having small, cut tiles against a wall, as this can be visually jarring.
• If needed, you can shift this cross-like assembly in any direction, so that any tile that borders a wall is as close as
possible to being a half tile or larger. When you pick up the tile, carefully stack the pieces so that you can keep
track of which tiles go where.
• Spread the Mortar
• Pick up a small batch of thinset mortar with your margin trowel or with the flat side of your notched trowel and
deposit the thinset on the cement board. Holding the flat side of your notched tile trowel at a 45-degree angle,
spread the mortar across the surface until it covers an area extending beyond the perimeter of a tile.
• Switch to the notched side of the same trowel and, again holding it at a 45-degree angle and pressing firmly to the
cement board, comb the thinset by pulling the trowel in straight lines. The notches in the trowel automatically
regulate the amount of thinset deposited on the surface.
• Lay the Tile
• Gently press the tile into the wet thinset, twisting the tile back and forth to press it deeper into the thinset. Your
aim is to collapse any ridges in the mortar and fill in gaps. Occasionally lift a tile and check the back to ensure
full coverage. If your tiles aren't covered fully, you can back butter the tiles by adding mortar to the tile itself
before placing it. As you progress from one tile to the next, place tile spacers at the corners to maintain
consistent spacing.
• Leave a 1/4-inch expansion gap along walls, cabinets, and other large room elements. Do not add mortar to
these gaps.
• Lay the bubble level across multiple tiles to check for both level and to eliminate lippage from one tile to the
next. Lightly tap the tiles with the rubber mallet to level them.
• Cut the Edge Tiles
• For cutting only a few tiles, a rail tile cutter can inexpensively and effectively snap apart tiles
• Grout the Tile
• After removing the tile spacers, use the rubber float to press the grout into the tile seams.
• Seal the Grout
• Cured tile grout will soak up water if it is not properly sealed. Seal the tile grout either by applying sealer to
individual grout lines with a brush applicator or by spraying down the entire tile surface and wiping off the
excess from the tile faces.
• Installation
• Floor Preparation
• The floor you intend to lay your sheet vinyl should be spotlessly devoid of any dust or debris. Sweep the
floor properly and be certain that the surface is totally free of any protruding material like nails or screw
heads. In case your present floor is being treated with wood preservative then it’s not considered suitable for
vinyl sheet covering. Presence of any oil, grease or bituminous solvent should be thoroughly removed by
applying an appropriate cleaning agent. Any visible presence of any moisture underneath the plastic sheet
signifies dampness which must be rectified before laying the sheet vinyl. If the concrete floor is uneven it is
better to level the floor first, take guidance on how to level a concrete floor.
• Accurate Measurement of Floor Dimensions
• Measure the length and width of the room. Make sure the dimensions measured are accurate. Precise
measurement of room dimensions is required because sheet vinyl is purchased and fitted based on these
dimensions. Measure right up to the center of doors where it comes. Allow 75 mm extra to each edge for
proper cutting and trimming
• Installations of Sheet Vinyl Flooring
• Even before you start laying your sheet vinyl, unroll it on the room floor and leave it there for next 24
hours so that it adjusts to the surface conditions. Rough lay your vinyl and properly adjust it on the floor
so that it fits closely allowing 75mm access. Laying vinyl in bathroom area can be tricky. Near the
pedestal region like toilet and sink, vinyl sheet needs to be cut around them. For this a series of slits are
made in the vinyl around the pedestal and vinyl sheet is cut in the shape of the pedestal to adjust that
location. The important point to remember is that all sheets vinyl flooring needs to be perfectly stuck to
the floor. Depending on the kind of sheet vinyl it can either be fully bonded to the floor using an
appropriate vinyl adhesive that is sprayed on the floor or be bonded at the perimeter and joined using
double sided vinyl floor tape. Normally cushion type sheet vinyl needs to be bonded at the perimeter
and non-cushion sheet vinyl needs to be fully bonded. However, it is necessary to follow manufacturer’s
instruction
• Spray the adhesive along the edge of the floor taking care not to spray on the walls.
• Follow this by sticking the tape around the edges of the room. Repeat this procedure for the other edges
and use tape around the base of pedestal and any other obstructions. Finally, sheet vinyl can be laid.
Gently lift each edge and remove the backing paper of the tape and stick vinyl firmly on the floor.
• Rubber flooring
• It consists of sheets of rubber, in variety of patterns and colours with thickness varyingfrom 3 to
10 mm.
• The sheets are fixed to the concrete floor with thehelp of appropriate adhesives.
• Rubber floorings are resilient and noise proof.
• They are costly, hence used in public buildings or offices
• Asphalt Flooring Material
• Asphalt is highly viscous liquid form of petroleum. Asphalt is used as flooring
material in different ways. If asphalt and sand are mixed in 1:2 proportion then
it is called asphalt mastic which is poured on concrete base as flooring cover.
If sand is replaced by marble chips then it is called as asphalt mosaic. Asphalt
tiles are also available which are prepared from the asphalt fibers, inert
materials and mineral pigments. Asphalt flooring uses implicit surface, trickle,
veranda, flyover, footbridge, terrace, parking lots, etc. it can apply shortest to a
current concrete foundation. Hence, it is helpful to release footbridges, patios,
etc. most countries prefer asphalt flooring for its durability and solidity. 
• Preparation and Installation of Asphalt Flooring
• reparation of Mastic Asphalt
• Asphalt which is generally available in drums is broken into pieces and put in an iron pot
known as ‘cauldron’. The iron pot is heated by lighting fire under it. Due to heating,
asphalt starts melting.
• The mass is continuously heated and stirred till whole of the mass melts. Once the whole
mass acquires uniform consistency (i.e., whole mass has melted) clean sharp sand or grit
it added in proportion of two parts of sand or grit to one part of asphalt.
• This mixture of sand and asphalt is continued to be heated till it starts emitting light
brown coloured smoke. At this stage the mixture which is also known as compost,
acquires such a consistency that it can drop freely from the stirrer. At this temperature,
the mix or compost is considered fit for use.
• Compost should not be heated further as otherwise, it may get over-burnt and its
properties undergo marked change which are unfavourable for a good floor finishing.
• Laying of Asphalt
• The hard and unsinkable base is prepared by 10 cm to 15 cm thick layer of lean
cement concrete or lime concrete. The surface is thoroughly cleaned and dried. The
mastic asphalt prepared as above is poured on the prepared base with the help of iron
ladles and spread evenly on the surface in thickness varying from 13 mm to 25 mm.
• Before the mastic asphalt becomes hard on cooling, very fine sand is shifted on the
surface. The surface is then rubbed with the help of trowel or hand float. The asphalt
floor is put to use after it has hardened.
• In case mastic is to be laid in two layers instead of one, sand should not be shifted
over the bottom layer. Second layer should be laid before the bottom layer solidifies.
Second layer of mastic should be covered with fine sand and finished by trowelling
before mastic becomes hard.
• In old days asphalt floors were not favoured because of bad smell and ugly colour of
the asphalt. Nowadays asphalt flooring can be made in a variety of colours. Floors
may be made from asphalt tiles, which are manufactured from natural asphalt,
asbestos fibres and mineral pigments. Asphalt floors may also be formed from
asphalt terrazzo which is manufactured by mixing marble, chips to coloured asphalt.
• Cork Flooring
• Cork is obtained from the cork oak tree. It is used as flooring material in the form of carpets.
These carpets are noiseless and are required mainly in libraries, theaters etc. Cork tiles are also
available which are made from high graded cork bar using compression in moldings.
• Factors Affecting Selection of Flooring Material
• The selection of flooring material is done based on the following factors:Initial cost
• Durability
• Hardness
• Smoothness
• Cleanliness
• Appearance
• Sound insulation
• Thermal insulation
• Damp proof
• Fire resistance
• Maintenance