BECA 2033 SOIL

SCIENCE
DR HARTINEE BINTI ABBAS
CHAPTER 2: SOIL ORIGIN &
DEVELOPMENT
 2.1 Rocks & Minerals
 2.2 Factors of Soil Formations
 2.3 Soil Profile
 2.4 Processes of Soil Formation

https://youtu.be/WYtF-ZdTr7s
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ALL ABOUT SOIL
 SOILS are a SLOWLY RENEWABLE resource
It takes 100’s to 1000’s of years for soils to develop…
…but they do grow, change, and develop over time.
 Soil is the result of the process of the gradual breakdown of rock such as
weathering and erosion.
 Soil is made up from 4 constituents:
Mineral material
Organic material
Air
Water
ROCKS AND MINERALS
ROCKS
 What is mineral and rock?

A mineral is a naturally occurring substance with distinctive chemical and physical

properties, composition and atomic structure. Rocks are generally made up of two of
more minerals, mixed up through geological processes
ROCK-FORMING MINERALS
 Rocks are composed of minerals. A mineral is a naturally occurring
substance which is usually solid, crystalline, stable at room temperature
and inorganic.
 There are almost 5000 known mineral species, yet the vast majority of
rocks are formed from combinations of a few common minerals,
referred to as “rock-forming minerals”. The rock-forming minerals are:
feldspars, quartz, amphiboles, micas, olivine,
garnet, calcite, pyroxenes.
.
3 MAJOR CATEGORIES OF
ROCKS:
 1) Igneous
 2) Sedimentary
 3) Metamorphic
IGNEOUS Igneous rocks are formed from melted rock deep inside the
Earth.
SEDIMENTARY Sedimentary rocks are formed from layers of sand,
silt, dead plants, and animal skeletons.
 METAMORPHIC Metamorphic rocks formed from other rocks either Igneous
or Sedimentary Rock that are changed by heat and
pressure underground.

Image Credits:
All rocks courtesy of AMNH; All rocks, © AMNH.
MINERALS
HOW TO IDENTIFY MINERALS
 1. COLOR

 2. HARDNESS
 A mineral's hardness is a measure of its relative resistance to scratching,
measured by scratching the mineral against another substance of known hardness
on the Mohs Hardness Scale. This method is especially useful for identifying
minerals in the field because you can test minerals against some very common
objects (fingernail, a penny, a nail).
 3. LUSTER
 is a way minerals reflect to light. either metallic or non metallic

 4. STREAK
 The "streak test" is a way of determining the color of a mineral in powdered
form. A specimen of the mineral is placed against a piece of unglazed porcelain
plate (known as a streak plate) and scraped across the surface of the plate.
 5. SURFACE OF MATERIALS
 6. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
2.2: FACTORS OF SOIL
FORMATION
 The type of soil developed depends on the amount of time a parent material of a specific
topography is exposed to the effects of climate and vegetation (or life).
2.3: SOIL
PROFILE
 “Soil profile is defined as the vertical section of the
soil from the ground surface downwards to where the
soil meets the underlying rock.”
Layers of Soil

The soil profile is composed of a

series of horizons or layers of soil
stacked one on top of the other. These
layers or horizons are represented by
letters O, A, E, C, B and R.

The E-Horizon

This layer is composed of nutrients leached from the O

and A horizons. This layer is more common in forested
areas and has lower clay content.
THE O-HORIZON
 The O horizon is the upper layer of the topsoil which is mainly composed of organic materials
such as dried leaves, grasses, dead leaves, small rocks, twigs, surface organisms, fallen trees,
and other decomposed organic matter. This horizon of soil is often black brown or dark brown
in colour and this is mainly because of the presence of organic content.
THE A-HORIZON OR TOPSOIL
 This layer is rich in organic material and is known as the humus layer. This layer consists of
both organic matter and other decomposed materials. The topsoil is soft and porous to hold
enough air and water.

 In this layer, the seed germination takes place and new roots are produced which grows into a
new plant. This layer consists of microorganisms such as earthworms, fungi, bacteria, etc.
THE E-HORIZON
 This layer is composed of nutrients leached from the O and A horizons. This layer is more
common in forested areas and has lower clay content.
THE B-HORIZON OR SUBSOIL
 It is the subsurface horizon, present just below the topsoil and above the bedrock. It is
comparatively harder and more compact than topsoil. It contains less humus, soluble minerals,
and organic matter. It is a site of deposition of certain minerals and metal salts such as iron
oxide.

 This layer holds more water than the topsoil and is lighter brown due to the presence of clay
soil. The soil of horizon-A and horizon-B is often mixed while ploughing the fields.
THE C-HORIZON OR
SAPROLITE
 This layer is devoid of any organic matter and is made up of broken bedrock. This layer is also
known as saprolite. The geological material present in this zone is cemented.
THE R-HORIZON
 It is a compacted and cemented layer. Different types of rocks such as granite, basalt and
limestone are found here.
2.4 WHAT IS THE PROCESS OF
FORMATION OF SOIL?
 They are produced from rocks (parent material) through the processes of weathering and natural
erosion. Water, wind, temperature change, gravity, chemical interaction, living organisms and
pressure differences all help break down parent material.
 Four basic processes occur in soils—additions, losses, transformations (changes), and
translocation (movement).
ACCUMULATION OF
MATERIALS
 Materials are added to the soil such as organic matter and decomposing materials or new
mineral materials deposited by the forces of ice, water or wind and they accumulate over time.
This happens in the top layer of the soil. In poorly drained soils, the organic materials
accumulate since water-logging prevents it from being oxidized or broken down by soil
organisms.

 In well drained soils, the materials accumulate when they are held up by the root systems.
Depositions by the forces of wind, water or ice equally contribute to the accumulation of new
materials. Some plants with the help of bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen and ammonia
compounds into the soil as nitrates
LEACHING AND LOSSES

 Through the movement of water, wind, ice or the uptake of the accumulated materials by
plants, the new particles including clay, organic matter, clay, silt or other chemical compounds
are leached and eroded away or taken up from the soil by plants.
 As a result, the physical and chemical compositions of the new accumulated materials together
with the soil parent material are altered. A prime example is the leaching out of some
carbonates, magnesium and other minerals.
 TRANSFORMATION AND
ILLLUVIATION
 Here the soil particles held in the suspension after the leaching such as clay are transformed
after which they accumulate. Transformation is the chemical weathering of silt, sand, and the
formation of clay minerals as well as the change of organic materials into decay resistant
organic matter. After, the clay and other accumulated materials are washed from the upper
horizons and deposited in the lower horizons. The plants and animals are also responsible for
transformation of the soil by physically and chemically breaking down the materials. The soil
begins to take shape on its own through transformation, which improves natural drainage and
nutrient composition.
PODSOLISATION AND
TRANSLOCATIONS

 Podsolisation takes place when strong acidic solutions breakdown the clay minerals.
Accordingly, aluminum, silica and iron form complex materials together with organic
compounds in the soil. These materials and the other accumulations are translocated within the
profile and/or between the horizons. After a relatively extended time, the movements of the
accumulated mineral precipitate such as iron oxides minerals are responsible for the reddish
and brownish color of the different soil horizons.

 The same applies to the alterations in structure, texture, and other mineral compositions. The
soil horizons are then cemented by the carbonate, iron, and silica minerals. For instance, sandy
soils are normally cemented by iron. Here, the soil drainage and air space will depend on the
resultant soil type and the compaction and cementation process.