BASIC NUTRITION AND DIET

THERAPY
INTRODUCTION
THE MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF
NUTRITION

Nutrition is the study of food and how the

body makes use of it. It deals not only with the
quantity and quality of food consumed but also
with the process of receiving and utilizing it for
the growth and renewal of the body and for the
maintenance of the different body functions.
FUNCTION OF NUTRITION
The basic function of nutrition is to maintain life by allowing
an individual to grow and be in state of optimum health.
The following are reasons why nutritional science is applied
to nursing care:
1. The recognition of the role of nutrition in preventing
diseases or illnesses;
2. The concern for adapting food patterns of individuals to
their nutritional needs within the framework of their
cultural, economic, and psychological situations and
styles; and
3. The awareness of the need in specified disease states to
modify nutritional factors for therapeutic purpose.
NUTRIENTS
NUTRIENTS are chemical substances found in food.
They perform diverse roles in the body such as to
provide heat and energy, to build and repair body
tissues, and to regulate body processes. Since
nutrients are found primarily in natural foods,
adequate intake of these nutrients is necessary to
carry out physiological functions.
NUTRIENTS
NUTRIENTS are classified according to the following:
1. FUNCTION – Those that form tissues in the body
are body-building nutrients while those that furnish
heat and energy are fats, carbohydrates, and proteins.
2. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES- Nutrients are either
organic or inorganic.
3. ESSENTIALITY- Nutrients are classified based on
their significant contribution to the body’s
physiological functioning.
4. CONCENTRATION- Nutrients are either in large
amounts or in little amounts.
FOOD
FOOD when taken and digested
nourishes the body. It is a vital
need without which a person
cannot live. It is likewise culturally
acceptable as it supplies heat and
energy, builds and repairs body
tissues, and regulates body
processes.
MODULE 1 : COMPOSITION OF
CELLS
Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, the students
should be able to:
1. Identify the composition of cells; and
2. Differentiate hydrophilic from
hydrophobic molecules.
CELL STRUCTURE
Cells are made up of water, inorganic ions, and
carbon-containing molecules. Water is the most
abundant molecule in cells, making up 70% or
more of total cell mass. As a result, the
interactions between water and other constituents
of cells are of vital importance in biological
chemistry.

Human body cells have several similar features:

cell membrane, cytoplasm, cell organelles, and
nucleus. Mature RBCs (red blood cells) are the
exemption having no nuclei.
CELL STRUCTURE
CELL MEMBRANE, also known as plasma
membrane, is selectively permeable and made
up of phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins.
The proteins in the cell membrane form pores or
openings to permit passage of materials by:
◦ Acting as enzymes to help substances enter
the cell.
◦ Acting as antigen markers to identify the cell
as “self”.
◦ Serving as receptor sites for hormones.
CELL STRUCTURE

CYTOPLASM is a watery solution of

minerals, gasses, and organic molecules
found between the cell membrane and
the nucleus and is a location of chemical
reactions.
CELL STRUCTURE
CELL ORGANELLES are intracellular
structures that are bound by their own membranes,
each having a definite function.
Cell organelles are made up of:
a. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is a passageway
for the transport of materials within the cell.
◦ Rough ER has ribosomes attached to its
membranes in order to synthesize secretory
proteins.
◦ Smooth ER has no ribosomes attached and
synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates.
CELL STRUCTURE
b. Ribosomes are tiny structures of protein and
RNA that are sites of protein synthesizes.
c. Golgi Apparatus is a string of flat membranous
sacs that synthesize carbohydrates. They package
material for secretion from the cell by breaking off
some of their small sacs and fusing with the cell
membrane in order to release the contained
substance to the outside of the cell.
d. Mitochondria are organelles inside the
cytoplasm that is the site of energy production
(ATP). They are bound by a double membrane and
have an inner layer with folds called cristae.
CELL STRUCTURE
e. Lysosomes are single-membraned structures inside
the cytoplasm that contain digestive enzymes that
destroy engulfed bacteria and other cellular debris.
f. Centrioles is a pair of rod-shaped structures that lie
perpendicular to one another and located just outside
the nucleus. Their function is to organize the spindle
fibers during cell division.
g. Cilia and flagella are mobile thread-like projections
through the cell membrane. Cilia are shorter than
flagella. They sweep materials across the cell surface.
The sperm cell is the only human cell with a
flagellum that aids motility.
CELL STRUCTURE
h. Nucleus is the control center of the cell that
contains the chromosomes. The forty six
chromosomes of the human cell are long
threads called chromatin that is made of DNA
and protein.
CELL STRUCTURE
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Depending on the internal structure of the cell,
organisms are divided into two types--
prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
Prokaryotic organisms are those that do not have
true nucleus and nucleolus and also contain all
membrane- bound cell organelles.
Prokaryotic cells are simple, small cells, while
eukaryotic cells are complex, large structured,
and are present in trillions which can be single-
celled or multicellular.
MODULE 2 : PROCESS OF
DIGESTION
Objectives:
At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:
1. Identify the organs of the human digestive system and
their functions; and
2. Trace the pathway of food from the mouth to the small
intestine and wastes from the large intestine to the anus.
DIGESTION
DIGESTION is defined as the process of breaking
down food into substances like carbohydrates, proteins,
fats, and vitamins that aid the body in its different
functions. The digestive system is made up of the
gastrointestinal tract also called the GI tract or digestive
tract, the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder.
The GI tract is a chain of hollow organs connected in a
long, twisting tube from the mouth to the anus. The
hollow organs that make up the GI tract are the mouth,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and
anus. The liver, pancreas, and gallbladder are the solid
organs of the digestive system.
PARTS OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
1. Mouth
Digestion begins in the mouth where food is
broken down pieces by chewing. Food then
mixes with the saliva and broken down into a
form that the body can absorb and use.

2. Throat
The throat, also known as the pharynx,
transfers food from the mouth to the
esophagus and warms, moistens, and filters
air before food is moved into the trachea.
PARTS OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
3. Esophagus
The esophagus is a muscular tube extending
from the pharynx to the stomach. Through a
series of contractions known as the
peristalsis, food goes to the stomach.
PARTS OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
4. Stomach
STOMACH is a sac like organ with tough muscular
walls. It holds, mixes, and grinds the food. The
stomach secretes acid and powerful enzymes that carry
on the process of breaking down food. Food leaves in
the stomach in liquid or paste consistency and moves
to the small intestine.
PARTS OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
5. Small Intestine
Small intestine is a long loosely coiled tube in the
abdomen which when spread out, would be more
than 20 feet long. It is made up of three parts – the
duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
Duodenum continues the process of breaking down
food, while the jejunum and ileum are responsible
for the absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.

Duodenum continues the process of breaking down

food, while the jejunum and ileum are responsible
for the absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.
PARTS OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
The stomach and the small intestine are supported by three organs in
digesting food:
Pancreas- secretes enzymes into the small intestine which break down
protein, fat, and carbohydrates from food.
Liver- produces and secretes bile which helps in digestion and the
absorption of fats and fat- soluble vitamins. The liver also cleanses and
purifies the blood that comes from the small intestine which contains the
nutrients absorbed from food.
Gallbladder- is a pear- shaped reservoir located just under the liver. Bile
made in the liver travels to the gallbladder through a cystic duct for
storage. During meals, the gallbladder contracts and sends bile to the
small intestine. After the nutrients have been absorbed and the leftover
liquid has passed through the small intestine, wastes are passed to the
large intestine or colon.
PARTS OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
6. Large Intestines
The colon is a long muscular tube approximately 5 to 6 feet
that connects the cecum (the first part of the large intestine) to
the rectum (the last part of the large intestine).
Five Parts of the Large Intestine:
a. Cecum
b. Ascending Colon (Right)
c. Transverse Colon (Across)
d. Descending Colon (Left)
e. Sigmoid Colon
PARTS OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
Stool from the digestive process passes through the colon
by means of contractions or peristaltic movements, first in
the liquid state and finally in solid form as water is
removed from the stool.
Stool is kept in the sigmoid colon until a “mass
movement” empties it into the rectum once or twice a day.
It normally takes about 36 hours for the stool to get
through the colon.
PARTS OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
The stool is made up of mostly food debris and
bacteria.
The descending colon empties its contents into the
rectum when it becomes full of stool, or feces, and
begins the process of elimination.
PARTS OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
7. Rectum
Rectum is an 8- inch chamber that
connects the colon to the anus. It
receives stool from the colon and
holds the stool until defecation.
When gas or stool comes into the
rectum, sensors send a message to
the brain which decides if the rectal
contents can be released or not.
Then the sphincters (muscles) relax
and the rectum contracts, expelling
the contents.
PARTS OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
8. Anus
Anus the digestive tract ends in the anus
which consists of the pelvic floor muscles
and the two anal sphincters. The lining of
the upper anus is specialized to detect
rectal contents. The pelvic floor muscle
creates an angle between the rectum and
the anus that stops stool from coming out
when it is not supposed to. The anal
sphincters provide control in the
elimination of stool.
MODULE 3 : MACRONUTRIENTS
Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able
to:
1. Identify the functions and classifications of
macronutrients: carbohydrates, fats, and proteins; and
2. Plan meals requiring each of the macronutrients.
CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are organic compounds

(saccharides- starches and sugars) composed of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; hydrogen and
oxygen usually occur in ratio 2:1 as in H₂0. They
are polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones which vary
from simple sugars containing from 3 to 7 carbon
atoms to very complex polymers. They provide the
major source of energy for the body or as much as
80 to 100% of calories.
CARBOHYDRATES
Classifications of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are divided into three groups:
Monosaccharides or simple sugars are the simplest
form of carbohydrates. They are sweet and since they
require no digestion, they can be absorbed directly into
the bloodstream from the small intestine. They include
the following:
◦ Glucose (Dextrose) or blood sugar is the principal
form in which carbohydrate is used by the body. It
is abundant in fruits, sweet corn, and corn syrup.
CARBOHYDRATES
◦ Fructose (Levulose) is the sweetest of simple
sugars. It is found in honey, most fruits, and
some vegetables. It is converted into glucose in
the body.

◦ Galactose is not found free in foods. It is

produced from lactose (milk sugar) by digestion
and is converted into glucose in the body. Some
infants are born with an inability to metabolize
galactose, a condition called galactosemia.
CARBOHYDRATES
Classifications of Carbohydrates
Disaccharides or double-sugars are made up of 2
monosaccharides. They are sweet and, unlike
monosaccharides, they must be changed to simple sugars by
hydrolysis before they can be absorbed. They include the
following:

◦ Sucrose (ordinary table sugar- granulated, powdered, or

brown) is processed from cane and beet sugar. It is
converted into glucose and galactose upon digestion. It is
composed of glucose and fructose. Sources: fruits,
vegetables, syrups, and sweet food production.
CARBOHYDRATES
◦ Lactose (milk sugar) is found in milk and milk
products except cheese. It is converted into glucose
and galactose in digestion and is less soluble and less
sweet than sucrose.

◦ Maltose is not found free in foods. It is produced by

hydrolysis of starch and is converted into glucose in
digestion. It is less sweet compared to glucose and
sucrose.
Sources: malt products and in germinating cereals;
infant formulas, beer, and malt beverage products.
CARBOHYDRATES
4. Polysaccharides are composed of many
molecules of simple sugars. They are commonly
known as complex sugars. They include the
following:

a. Starch is the most significant polysaccharide in

human nutrition. It is converted entirely into
glucose upon digestion; is more complex than
sugars; and requires a longer time to digest.
Sources: cereal grains, potatoes and other root
vegetables, and legumes.
CARBOHYDRATES
b. Dextrins are not found free in foods. They are
formed as intermediate products in the breakdown
of starch.

c. Cellulose forms from the framework of plants

found in unrefined grains, vegetables, and fruits. It
is non-digestible by humans; no specific enzyme is
present and provides important bulk in the diet
which helps move digestive food mass along and
stimulates peristalsis.
Sources: stems and leaves of vegetables, seeds and
grain coverings, skins and hulls.
CARBOHYDRATES
Classifications of Cellulose

◦ Soluble- found in fruits and legumes, barleys and

oats which delay gastrointestinal transit and
glucose absorption, and lower blood cholesterol.

◦ Insoluble- found in wheat brans, corn brans, whole

grain breads, cereals, and vegetables which
accelerate GI transit, increase fecal weight, slow
down starch hydrolysis, and delay glucose
absorption.
CARBOHYDRATES
d. Pectins are non-digestible, colloidal polysaccharides
having a gel quality. Pectins are also used to treat diarrhea
as they absorb toxins and bacteria in the intestine.
Sources: fruits and often used as base for jellies

e. Glycogens (animal starch) are formed from glucose and

stored in liver and muscle tissues. They converted entirely
into glucose upon digestion. The hormone glucagons help
the liver convert glycogen into glucose every time the
body needs energy.
Sources: meats and sea foods
CARBOHYDRATES
Digestion of Carbohydrates
Mouth
◦ Enzyme- amylase (an enzyme of the saliva,
secreted by the parotid glands, acts on starch to
begin its breakdown to dextrins and maltose).
◦ Action- food does not stay in the mouth long
enough for much of this change to be
completed, so that food is conveyed into the
stomach mostly in starch form.
CARBOHYDRATES
Stomach
◦ Enzyme- pancreatin enzyme, amylopsin, converts
starch into dextrins and maltose.
◦ Intestinal Juice- contains three disaccharides-
sucrose, lactose, and maltose (which act on their
respective disaccharides- sucrose, lactose and
maltose to produce monosaccharides- glucose,
galactose, and fructose).
CARBOHYDRATES
Functions of Carbohydrates
1. The principal function of carbohydrates is to serve as a
major source of energy for the body.
2. Carbohydrates exert a protein-sparing action. If insufficient
carbohydrates are available in the diet, the body will convert
protein into glucose in order to supply energy.
3. The presence of carbohydrates is necessary for normal fat
metabolism. If there is insufficient carbohydrate, larger
amounts of fats are used for energy than the body is equipped
to handle, and oxidation is incomplete. The amount of
carbohydrates present determines how much fat will be
broken down.
CARBOHYDRATES
Functions of Carbohydrates
4. Cellulose and closely related insoluble, indigestible
carbohydrates aid in normal elimination. They stimulate the
peristaltic movements of the GI tract and absorb water to give
bulk to the intestinal contents.
5. They also supply significant quantities of proteins, minerals,
and B vitamins.
6. Lactose remains in the intestine longer than other
disaccharides, and this encourages the growth of the beneficial
bacteria, resulting in a laxative action.
7. Glucose has specific influences; it is indispensable for the
maintenance of the functional integrity of the nerve tissue and it
is the sole source of energy for the brain.
CARBOHYDRATES
Sources of Carbohydrates
1. Whole grains rich in iron, thiamine, niacin, and
other nutrients are important sources of
carbohydrates. In the manufacture of wheat flour and
refined cereal, the germ and outer layers of the grain
are removed resulting in the significant losses of Iron
and B complex vitamins.
2. Sweet potatoes and white potatoes are important
contributors to carbohydrate intake from the
vegetable and fruit groups because they are daily
items in many diets. Some fruits such as bananas and
dried fruits and some vegetables such as corn and
lima beans are also relatively high in carbohydrate
content.
CARBOHYDRATES
Sources of Carbohydrates
3. Milk is unique in that it is the only dietary source
of lactose. Each cup contains 12 gm. Cheese
contains only traces of lactose.
4. Sugars and sweets are important sources of
carbohydrates next to breads and cereals, and cane
and beet sugars, honey, maple syrup, jellies, jams,
and candies. “Empty calories” are foods which do
not contain any amount of other nutrients aside from
carbohydrates.
CARBOHYDRATES
Health Effects of Starch and Fibers
Weight control- fibers rich in complex carbohydrates tend to
be low in fat and added sugars and can promote weight loss.
Heart Disease- high-carbohydrate diets, rich in whole grains,
can protect an individual against heart disease and stroke.
Cancer- high-carbohydrate diets can help prevent many
types of cancer.
Diabetes- high-carbohydrate, low-fat diets help control
weight.
Gastrointestinal Health- dietary fibers enhance the health of
the large intestine.
PROTEINS
PROTEIN is taken from the Greek word protos
meaning primary, ranking first, or occupying the
first position. Similarly, protein is the first
substance recognized as a vital part of a living
tissue. It contains nitrogen aside from the basic
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Proteins are more
complex compounds of high molecular weighs
and structured in specific arrangements and
numbers of their simpler building units, amino
acids. They are organic substances that, upon
digestion, yield these amino acids.
PROTEINS
FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS
1. Proteins are used in repairing worn-out body
tissue proteins (anabolism) caused by the continued
wear and tear (catabolism) going on in the body.
2. Proteins are used to build new tissue by supplying
the necessary amino acid building blocks.
3. Proteins are source of heat and energy. one gram
of proteins contains 4 calories.
PROTEINS
FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS
4. Proteins contribute to numerous essential body
secretions and fluids, enzymes, and proteins. Some
hormones have protein or amino acid components.
Mucus and milk are largely protein. Sperm cells are
likewise largely protein as is the fluid in which the
sperm cells are contained.
5. Proteins are important in the maintenance of
normal osmotic relations among the various body
fluids.
PROTEINS
FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS
6. Proteins play a vital role in the resistance of the
body to diseases. Antibodies to specific diseases are
found as part of the plasma globulin, especially in
what is known as the gamma globulin fraction of
plasma.
7. Dietary proteins furnish the amino acids for a
variety of metabolic functions.
PROTEINS
Sources of Protein
1. Complete protein foods- meat, fish, poultry, egg,
milk, cheese
2. Legumes, nuts
3. Breads and cereals
PROTEINS
Requirement for Human Nutrition
1. Quality of protein fundamental to health and life.
2. General daily recommendation of the food and
nutrition board
a. Adult- 0-9 g/kg BW
b. Children- growth needs vary according to age and
growth patterns
c. Pregnancy- rapid growth requires an increase of 30 g
over that of a non-pregnant woman
d. Lactation- it requires an increase of 20 g.
PROTEINS
Health Effects of Protein
1. Heart disease- food rich in animal protein tend
to be rich in saturation fats.
2. Cancer- studies, suggest a relationship between
high intake of animal protein and some types of
cancer like cancer of the prostate gland, pancreas,
kidneys, breast, and colon.
3. Osteoporosis- calcium excretion rises as protein
intake increases.
PROTEINS
Health Effects of Protein
4. Weight control- protein-rich foods are also rich
in fat which can lead to obesity with associated
health risks.
5. Kidney diseases- excretion of end products of
protein metabolism depends on a sufficient fluid
intake and healthy kidneys. A high- protein diet
increases the work of the kidneys.
PROTEINS
PROTEIN-ENERGY MALNUTITION (PEM)
1. Marasmus- severe deprivation of food over a
long period of the time characterized by
insufficiency of protein and energy intake.
2. Kwashiorkor- this condition reflects an abrupt
and recent deprivation of food which develop
rapidly as a consequence of protein deficiency or
an illness like measles.
PROTEIN-ENERGY
MALNUTITION (PEM)
FATS
FATS are organic compounds composed of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen. Fats constitutes 34% of the
energy in the human body. They include substances
such as fats, oils, waxes, and related compounds that
are greasy.
They provide a more concentrated source of energy
compared to carbohydrates.
FATS
FUNCTIONS OF FATS
1. Normally, about 95% of the fat in food is digested
and absorbed. Fats are important sources of calories. It
is quite normal for the body to have deposits of fat that
serve as continuing supply of energy each and every
hour. In fact, if the body had no reserves of fat, it
would need food much more frequently to provide a
continuous supply of energy.
2. Fat is essential to maintain the constant body
temperature by providing effective insulation
underneath the skin.
FATS
FUNCTIONS OF FATS
3. Fat cushions vital organs such as kidney against
injury.
4. Fat facilitates the absorption of the fat-soluble
vitamins A, D, E, and K.
5. Fat provides satiety and delays the onset of hunger.
6. Fat contributes flavor and palatability to the diet.