Chemical Engineering Apparatus Design

Pressure vessel

2
 Pressure vessel

 Pressure vessels are closed structures containing liquids or gases

under higher pressure.
• The responsible of chemical engineer is normally required to
specify the main dimensions of pressure vessel equipment.
• There is no strict definition of what constitutes a pressure vessel,
but it is generally accepted that any closed vessel over 150 mm
diameter subject to a pressure difference of more than 0.5 bar
should be regarded as a pressure vessel
• This definition applies to most process reactors, distillation
columns, separators (flashes and decanters), pressurized storage
vessels and heat exchangers

3
 .
• Chemical engineers are usually not properly trained or qualified to carry out
detailed mechanical design of vessels.
• Most mechanical designs are completed by specialists in later phases of design.
• But the process design engineer needs to understand pressure vessel design in
order to generate good cost estimates

4
• The chemical engineer will be responsible for developing and
specifying the basic design information for a particular vessel

• The basic data needed by the specialist designer will be:

1. Vessel function.
2. Operating and design temperature and pressure.
3. Materials of construction.
4. Vessel dimensions and orientation.
5. Type of vessel heads to be used.
6. Openings and connections required.
7. Specification of heating and cooling jackets or coils.
8. Type of agitator.
9. Specification of internal fittings. 5
 .
• Pressure vessels are used in a variety of industries such as:
• Petroleum refining
• Chemical
• Power
• Food & beverage
• Pharmaceutical

Classification of Pressure Vessels

• Pressure vessels are subdivided into two classes depending on the
ratio of the wall thickness to vessel diameter:
– thin-walled vessels - with a thickness to diameter ratio of less than 1:10
– thick-walled - above 1/10.

6
 Pressure Vessel Specifications
• The process engineer will usually specify the following parameters
based on process requirements:
– Vessel size and shape (volume, L and D)
– Vessel orientation and elevation
– Maximum and minimum design pressure
– Maximum and minimum design temperature
– Number of nozzles needed (& location)
– Vessel internals
– Support
– Material of construction
– Corrosion allowance

• There is often a lot of dialogue with the mechanical engineer to set the
final specifications

7
 Types of Pressure vessel
• There are three main types of pressure vessels in general
• Horizontal Pressure Vessels
• Vertical Pressure Vessels
• Spherical Pressure vessels

8
• Different pressure vessels are constructed

vertical drum VERTICAL TOWER

9
 PRESSURE VESSEL CODES AND STANDARDS

• In all the major industrialized countries, the design and fabrication of thin-
walled pressure vessels is covered by national standards and codes of practice

10
• In most countries, it is a legal requirement that pressure vessels
must be designed, constructed ,and tested in accordance with part
or all of the design code.
• The primary purpose of the design codes are:
 To establish rules of safety relating to the pressure integrity of
vessels
 To provide guidance on:
o Design
o materials of construction
o Fabrication
o Inspection
o testing.

11
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

By: Endalkachew C, Process Apparatus design I (sizing) Cheg 5201 12

• Division 1: Contains general rules and is most commonly followed, particularly
for low pressure vessels.

• Division 2: Contains alternative rules that are more restrictive on materials,

design temperatures, design details, fabrication methods, and inspection, but
allow higher design stresses and hence thinner vessel walls.

• Division 2 rules are usually chosen for large, high-pressure vessels where the
savings in metal cost and fabrication complexity offsets the higher engineering
and construction costs

• Division 3: Contains alternative rules intended for vessels with design

pressures greater than 10,000 psig.

13
 Reactor vessel
• The following Figure shows a typical reactor vessel with a
cylindrical shell.
• The process fluid undergoes a chemical reaction inside a reactor.
• This reaction is normally facilitated by the presence of a catalyst
which is held in one or more catalyst beds.

14
Reactor vessel

15
• Thin wall pressure vessels (TWPV) are widely used in industry for storage and
transportation of liquids and gases when configured as tanks.

• Cylindrical and spherical pressure vessels are the most frequently used
pressure vessels

16
o In general, the following are the main components of pressure
Vessels
– Shell
– Head
– Nozzle
– Support

17
 1. Shell
 It is the primary component that contains the pressure.

 Pressure vessel shells in the form of different plates are welded together to
form a structure that has a common rotational axis.

 Shells are either cylindrical, spherical or conical in shape.

 Horizontal drums have cylindrical shells and are constructed in a wide range of
diameter and length.

 The shell sections of a tall tower may be constructed of different materials,

thickness and diameters due to process and phase change of process fluid.

18
 Vessel Orientation

• Usually vertical
– Easier to distribute fluids across a smaller cross section
– Smaller plot space

• Reasons for using horizontal vessels

– To promote phase separation
• Increased cross section = lower vertical velocity = less
entrainment
• Decanters, settling tanks, separators, flash vessels
– To allow internals to be pulled for cleaning
• Heat exchangers

19
 2. Head (closure)
 All the pressure vessels must be closed at the ends by heads (or
another shell section).
 Heads are typically curved rather than flat.
 The reason is that curved configurations are:
o Stronger
o Allow the heads to be thinner
o Lighter Than flat heads
o Less expensive
 Heads can also be used inside a vessel and are known as intermediate
heads.
o These intermediate heads are separate sections of the pressure vessels
to permit different design conditions.

20
 2. Head (closure)
 The principal types heads and closures are:
 Flat plates and formed flat heads
Hemispherical heads
Ellipsoidal heads
Torispherical heads

21
 Flat-end closures
 Flat plates are used as covers for manways, and as the channel covers of heat
exchangers
 Commonly used flat ends

Welded plate
Flanged plate Welded plate

Bolted cover Bolted cover

22
 Domed ends
• Hemispherical, ellipsoidal and torispherical heads are collectively referred to as
domed heads.
• Hemispherical
 strongest shape, capable of resisting twice the
pressure of torispherical of the same thickness
 Good for high pressures
 Higher internal volume
 Most expensive to form & join to shell
 Half the thickness of the shell

• Ellipsoidal
 Cheaper than hemispherical and less internal
volume
 Depth is half diameter
 Same thickness as shell
 Above 15 bar an ellipsoidal head will usually prove
to be the most economical closure

• Torispherical (dished)
 Part torus, part sphere
 Similar to elliptical, but cheaper to fabricate
 Commonly used for operating pressures up to15
bar 23
 3. Nozzle
• A nozzle is a cylindrical component that penetrates into the shell or
head of pressure vessel.

• They are used for:

• Attach piping for flow into or out of the vessel.
• Attach instrument connection (level gauges, pressure gauges).
• Provide access to the vessel interior at MANWAY.
• Provide for direct attachment of other equipment items (e.g.
heat exchangers).
• Manway: A hole or duct by which a human being may access a utility
area for maintenance purposes.

24
• Vessel needs nozzles for
– Feeds, Products
– Hot &/or cold utilities
– Manways, bursting disks, relief valves
– Instruments
• Pressure, Level, Thermowells
• Sample points
• More nozzles = more cost
• Nozzles are usually on side of vessel,
away from weld lines, usually
perpendicular to shell
• Nozzles may or may not be flanged (as
shown) depending on joint type
• The number & location of nozzles are
usually specified by the process engineer
 4. Vessel Support
 Support is used to bear all the load of pressure vessel, earthquake
and wind loads.
 The method used to support a vessel will depend on:
o size
o Shape
o weight of the vessel
o the design temperature and pressure
o the vessel location and arrangement
o the internal and external fittings and attachments
 There are different types of supports which are used depending upon
the size and orientation of the pressure vessel.
 It is considered to be the non-pressurized part of the vessel.
 Supports must allow for thermal expansion in operation

26
 Cont…
 Smaller vessels are usually supported on beams – a support ring or
brackets are welded to the vessel
 Tall vertical vessels are often supported using a skirt rather than
legs.
 Horizontal vessels are usually mounted on two saddle supports
 Brackets, or lugs, are used for all types of vessel.
 The supports must be designed to carry the weight of the vessel and
contents, and any superimposed loads, such as wind loads.
 Supports will impose localized loads on the vessel wall, and the
design must be checked to ensure that the resulting stress
concentrations are below the maximum allowable design stress.
 Supports should be designed to allow easy access to the vessel and
fittings for inspection and maintenance

27
 Types of supports
1. saddle support
 Horizontal drums are typically supported at two locations by saddle support.

2. Skirt Support
 Tall vertical cylindrical pressure vessels are typically supported by skirts.
 A support skirt is a cylindrical shell section that is welded either to the lower
portion of the vessel shell or to the bottom head (for cylindrical vessels).

28
 Cont…
3. Leg Support

 Small vertical drums are typically supported on legs that are welded to the
lower portion of the shell.

 The max. ratio of support leg length to drum diameter is typically 2 : 1

 Support legs are also used for Spherical pressurized storage vessels.

 Cross bracing between the legs is used to absorb wind or earth quake loads.

29
 Cont…

4. Lug Support

 The lugs are typically bolted to

horizontal structural members in
order to provide stability against
overturning loads.
 Vertical pressure vessels may also
be supported by lugs.
 The use of lugs is typically limited
to pressure vessels of small and
medium diameter (1 to 10 ft)
 Also moderate height to diameter
ratios in the range of 2:1 to 5:1

30
 Thin wall pressure vessels

 Thin wall refers to a vessel having an inner-diameter-to-wall-thickness ratio of

“10” ??????

 When the vessel wall is thin, the stress distribution throughout its thickness
will not vary significantly, and so we will assume that it is uniform or constant.

 Combined stresses are present in pressure vessels under internal pressure.

 Consider a cylinder, with capped ends, subjected to an internal pressure, p,

which may be due to a fluid or gas enclosed within the cylinder

Long thin cylindrical shell with closed ends under

internal pressure 31
.

 The hydrostatic pressure causes

stresses in three dimensions.
1. Longitudinal stress (axial) σL
2. circumferential stresses (hoop
stress) σh

32
• The internal pressure acting on the long sides of the cylinder gives rise to a
circumferential stress in the wall of the cylinder;

• if the ends of the cylinder are closed, the pressure acting on these ends is
transmitted to the walls of the cylinder, thus producing a longitudinal stress in
the walls.

33
Stresses in cylindrical vessel

Stresses in spherical vessel

34
 General Design considerations for pressure vessel

1. Design pressure: A vessel must be designed to withstand the

maximum pressure to which it is likely to be subjected in
operation.

• For vessels under internal pressure, the design pressure is

normally taken as the pressure at which the relief device is set.

• This will normally be 5 to 10 per cent above the normal working

pressure, to avoid spurious operation during minor process
upsets.

35
2. Design temperature
• The strength of metals decreases with increasing temperature so the
maximum allowable design stress will depend on the material
temperature.
• The design temperature at which the design stress is evaluated
should be taken as the maximum working temperature of the
material, with due allowance for any uncertainty involved in
predicting vessel wall temperatures.
3. Materials
• Selection of a suitable material must take into account the suitability
of the material for fabrication (particularly welding) as well as the
compatibility of the material with the process environment.
• The pressure vessel design codes and standards include lists of
acceptable materials; in accordance with the appropriate material
standards.
36
 4. Maximum Allowable Stress (Nominal Design Strength):

• For design purposes it is necessary to decide a value for the maximum

allowable stress (nominal design strength) that can be accepted in the material
of construction.

• This is determined by applying a suitable safety factor to the maximum stress

The safety factor allows for any uncertainty in the design methods, the loading,
the quality of the materials.

37
 5. Welded joint efficiency, and construction categories

• The strength of a welded joint will depend on the type of joint and the quality
of the welding.

• The soundness of welds is checked by visual inspection and by non-destructive

testing (radiography)

• The possible lower strength of a welded joint compared with the virgin plate is
usually allowed for in design by multiplying the allowable design stress for the
material by a “welded joint factor” J or E.

• Taking the factor as 1.0 implies that the joint is equally as strong as the virgin
plate;

38
 6. Corrosion allowance

• The “corrosion allowance” is the additional thickness of metal added to allow

for material lost by corrosion and erosion, or scaling

• For carbon and low-alloy steels, where severe corrosion is not expected, a
minimum allowance of 2.0 mm should be used; where more severe conditions
are anticipated this should be increased to 4.0 mm.

39
 7. Design loads
• A structure must be designed to resist gross plastic deformation and collapse under all the
conditions of loading. They can be classified as major loads, that must always be considered in vessel
design, and subsidiary loads.

• Major loads
– Design pressure: including any significant static head of liquid.
– Maximum weight of the vessel and contents, under operating conditions.
– Maximum weight of the vessel and contents under the hydraulic test conditions.
– Wind loads.
– Earthquake (seismic) loads.
• Subsidiary loads
– Local stresses caused by supports, internal structures and connecting pipes.
– Shock loads caused by water hammer, or by surging of the vessel contents.
– Bending moments caused by eccentricity of the centre of the working pressure
– Stresses due to temperature differences and differences in the coefficient expansion of materials.
– Loads caused by fluctuations in temperature and pressure.

• A vessel will not be subject to all these loads simultaneously.

• The designer must determine what combination of possible loads gives the worst
situation, and design for that loading condition .
40
 8. Minimum practical wall thickness

• There will be a minimum wall thickness required to ensure that any vessel is
sufficiently rigid to withstand its own weight, and any incidental loads.

• As a general guide the wall thickness of any vessel should not be less than the
values given below; the values include a corrosion allowance of 2 mm:

41
 Design of thin wall vessels under internal pressure

1. Cylinders and Spherical Shells

• The analysis of the stresses induced in the wall by internal pressure gives a
basis for determining the minimum wall thickness required for vessel shells.

• The actual thickness required will also depend on the stresses arising from the
other loads to which the vessel is subjected.

42
• The minimum wall thickness that is required to contain the internal pressure
can be determined the above equations.

• If Di is internal diameter and e the minimum thickness (e) required, the mean
diameter will be (Di + e); substituting this for D in hoop stress equation gives

• If we allow for the welded joint efficiency, f, this becomes

• for sphere The equation specified by the ASME BPV Code (Sec. VIII D.1 Part UG-
27) is

43
• The ASME BPV Code specifies that the minimum thickness shall be the greater
value determined from the above Equations.

44
 2. Design of ends (closures)
Flat ends : Though the fabrication cost is low, flat ends are not a structurally
efficient form, and very thick plates would be required for high pressures or
large diameters.

• The thickness required will depend on the degree of constraint at the plate
periphery. The minimum thickness required is given by:

45
 .

a) Flanged plate
b) Welded plate
c) Welded plate

e) Bolted cover

d) Bolted cover

46
 .
• Values for the design constant C and the nominal plate diameter De are given in
the ASME BPV Code for various arrangements of flat end closures (Sec. VIII D.1
Part UG-34).

47
 2. Design of domed ends

• Design equations and charts for the various types of domed heads are given in the
codes and standards and should be used for detailed design.

• The head thickness must be increased to compensate for the weakening effect of the
holes where the opening or branch is not locally reinforced

1. Hemispherical Heads

• For equal stress in the cylindrical section and hemispherical head of a vessel the
thickness of the head need only be half that of the cylinder;

• however, as the dilation of the two parts would then be different, discontinuity
stresses would be set up at the head and cylinder junction.

48
• For no difference in dilation between the two parts (equal diametrical strain) it
can be shown that for steels (Poisson’s ratio = 0.3), the ratio of the
hemispherical head thickness to cylinder thickness should be 7/17.

• In the ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1, the equation specified is the same as for a
spherical shell

49
 2. Ellipsoidal Heads

• Most standard ellipsoidal heads are manufactured with a major and minor
axis ratio of 2:1.

• For this ratio, the following equation can be used to calculate the minimum
thickness required (ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1 Part UG-32):

50
 3. Torispherical heads
• A torispherical shape is formed from part of a torus and part of a sphere

• There are two junctions in a torispherical end closure: that between the
cylindrical section and the head, and that at the junction of the crown and the
knuckle radii.

• Rk is the knuckle radius (the radius of the torus) and Rc the crown radius (the
radius of the sphere). The stress will be higher in the torus section than the
spherical section.

51
 .

• The ratio of the knuckle to crown radii should not be less than 0.06, to avoid
buckling; and the crown radius should not be greater than the diameter of the
cylindrical section

• For formed heads (no welds or joints in the head) the joint factor E/J is taken
as 1.0.

• The ASME BPV Code gives the design equation (Sec. VIII D.1 Part UG-32)

52
 Conical Sections and End Closures
• Conical sections (reducers) are used to make a gradual reduction in diameter
from one cylindrical section to another of smaller diameter.

• Conical ends are used to facilitate the smooth flow and removal of solids from
process equipment; such as, hoppers, spray-dryers and crystallizers.

• the thickness required at any point on a cone is related to the diameter by the
following expression

• This equation will only apply at points away from the cone to cylinder
junction.

• .
53
 .
• This can be allowed for by introducing a stress concentration factor

• The transition section would be made thicker than the conical or cylindrical
section and formed with a knuckle radius to reduce the stress concentration
at the transition

54
55
DESIGN OF VESSELS SUBJECT TO EXTERNAL PRESSURE
Cylindrical shells
• Two types of process vessel are likely to be subjected to external pressure:
those operated under vacuum, where the maximum pressure will be 1 bar
(atm); and, where the inner vessel will be under the jacket pressure jacketed
vessels

• Thin-walled vessels subject to external pressure are liable to failure through

elastic instability (buckling) and it is this mode of failure that determines the
wall thickness required.

• For a cylinder, the critical pressure to cause buckling Pc is given by the

following expression

56
• The minimum value of the critical pressure will occur when the number of
lobes is 2, and substituting this value into equation

• For most pressure-vessel materials Poisson’s ratio can be taken as 0.3;

57
• For short closed vessels, and long vessels with stiffening rings, the critical
buckling pressure will be higher than that predicted by the above equation .
The effect of stiffening can be taken into account by introducing a “collapse
coefficient”, Kc, into equation can be used to determine the critical
buckling pressure and hence the
thickness required to resist a given
external pressure; A factor of safety of at
least 3 should be applied to this equation

• where Kc is a function of the diameter and thickness of the vessel, and the
effective length L’ between the ends or stiffening rings
• the critical distance between stiffeners, Lc, beyond which stiffening will not be
effective is given by:

Any stiffening rings

used must be spaced
closer than Lc

58
• Kc is a function of the diameter and thickness of the vessel

59
60
 Out of roundness
• Any out-of-roundness in a shell after fabrication will significantly
reduce the ability of the vessel to resist external pressure
 Design of stiffness rings

• The critical load to cause buckling in a ring under a uniform load F c is given by the
following expression

• In vacuum distillation columns, the plate-support rings will act as stiffening rings
and strengthen the vessel
62
 .
• Combining the above equations will give an equation from which the required
dimensions of the ring can be determined:

• the use of Ir calculated for the ring alone will give an added factor of safety.

• the resistance to failure by buckling can be increased significantly by the use of

stiffening rings, or longitudinal strips.

63
64
 Vessel heads

• The critical buckling pressure for a sphere subject to external pressure is given
by

• Karman and Tsien (1939) have shown that the pressure to cause a “dimple” to
form is about one-quarter of that given by above equation, and is given by:

• A generous factor of safety is needed when applying this equation to the design
of heads under external pressure.
• the following equation for the minimum thickness:

65
 .
• Torispherical and ellipsoidal heads can be designed as equivalent hemispheres.

• For a torispherical head the radius Rs is taken as equivalent to the crown radius
R c.

• For an ellipsoidal head the radius can be taken as the maximum radius of
curvature; that at the top, given by:

66
 DESIGN OF VESSELS SUBJECT TO COMBINED LOADING
• Pressure vessels are subjected to other loads in addition to pressure and must
be designed to withstand the worst combination of loading without failure.

• It is not practical to give an explicit relationship for the vessel thickness to resist
combined loads.

• A trial thickness must be assumed (based on that calculated for pressure alone)
and the resultant stress from all loads determined to ensure that the maximum
allowable stress intensity is not exceeded at any point.

• The main sources of load to consider are:

– Pressure.
– Dead weight of vessel and contents.
– Wind.
– Earthquake (seismic).
– External loads imposed by piping and attached equipment

67
 Cylindrical vessels
• The primary stresses arising from these loads are considered bellow.
• Primary stresses
1. The longitudinal and circumferential stresses due to pressure
given by:

2. The direct stress δw due to the weight of the vessel, its contents, and any
attachments.
• The stress will be tensile (positive) for points below the plane of the vessel
supports, and compressive (negative) for points above the supports.

• The dead-weight stress will normally only be significant, compared to the

magnitude of the other stresses, in tall vessels.

where W is the total weight which is supported by the vessel wall at the plane considered
68
 .
3. Bending stresses resulting from the bending moments to which the vessel is
subjected.
Bending moments will be caused by the following loading conditions:
a. The wind loads on tall self-supported vessels
b. Seismic (earthquake) loads on tall vessels
c. The dead weight and wind loads on piping and equipment which is attached to the
vessel, but offset from the vessel centre line
d. For horizontal vessels with saddle supports, from the disposition of dead-weight load

69
• The bending stresses will be compressive or tensile, depending on location, and
are given by:

where Mv is the total bending moment at the plane being considered and I v the second
moment of area of the vessel about the plane of bending.

4. Torsional shear stresses resulting from torque caused by loads offset from the
vessel axis. These loads will normally be small, and need not be considered in
preliminary vessel designs. The torsional shear stress is given by:

70
 Principal stresses
• The principal stresses will be given by

The third principal stress, that in the radial direction σ3, will usually be negligible for thin-
walled vessels . As an approximation it can be taken as equal to one-half the pressure
loading

71
 Compressive stresses and elastic stability
• Under conditions where the resultant axial stress σz due to the combined loading is
compressive, the vessel may fail by elastic instability (buckling).

• Failure can occur in a thin-walled process column under an axial compressive load by
buckling of the complete vessel,.

• A column design must be checked to ensure that the maximum value of the resultant
axial stress does not exceed the critical value at which buckling will occur.

• For a curved plate subjected to an axial compressive load the critical buckling
stress σc is given by

72
• can be used to predict the maximum allowable compressive stress to avoid failure by
buckling.

• For steels at ambient temperature E= 200,000 N/mm2, and with a factor of safety

• The maximum compressive stress in a vessel wall should not exceed that given by
the above equation; or the maximum allowable design stress for the material,
whichever is the least

73
 Loading

• The loads to which a vessel may be subjected will not all occur at the same
time.
For example, it is the usual practice to assume that the maximum wind load will
not occur simultaneously with a major earthquake.

• The vessel must be designed to withstand the worst combination of the loads
likely to occur in the following situations:

– During erection (or dismantling) of the vessel.

– With the vessel erected but not operating.
– During testing (the hydraulic pressure test).
– During normal operation.

74
 1. Weight loads
• The major sources of dead weight loads are:
– The vessel shell.
– The vessel fittings: manways, nozzles.
– Internal fittings: plates (plus the fluid on the plates); heating and cooling coils.
– External fittings: ladders, platforms, piping.
– Auxiliary equipment which is not self-supported; condensers, agitators.
– Insulation.
– The weight of liquid to fill the vessel. The vessel will be filled with water for the
hydraulic pressure test; and may fill with process liquid.

• For preliminary calculations the approximate weight of a cylindrical vessel with

domed ends, and uniform wall thickness, can be estimated from the following
equation

75
• For a steel vessel

76
.

These densities should be doubled to allow for attachment fittings, sealing, and
moisture absorption

77
 2. Wind loads (tall vessels)
• Wind loading will only be important on tall columns installed in the open. Columns are
usually free standing, mounted on skirt supports, and not attached to structural steel
work.
• Under these conditions the vessel under wind loading the bending moment at any plane
is given by:.

where x is the distance measured from the

free end and w/F the load per unit length
(Newtons per metre run).

78
• The bending moment, and hence the bending stress, will vary parabolically
from zero at the top of the column to a maximum value at the base.

• For tall columns the bending stress due to wind loading will often be greater
than stress due to pressure, and will determine the plate thickness required.

• The most economical design will be one in which the plate thickness is
progressively increased from the top to the base of the column.

• The thickness at the top being sufficient for the pressure load, and that at the
base sufficient for the pressure plus the maximum bending moment.

79
 Dynamic wind pressure
• The load imposed on any structure by the action of the wind will depend on the shape of
the structure and the wind velocity

• The drag coefficient is a function of the shape of the structure and the wind
velocity (Reynolds number).
• For a smooth cylindrical column the following semi-empirical equation can be
used to estimate the wind pressure

80
• A wind speed of 160 km/h can be used for preliminary design studies; equivalent to a
wind pressure of 1280 N/m2 (25 lb/ft2).

• At any site, the wind velocity near the ground will be lower than that higher and in some
design methods a lower wind pressure is used at heights below about 20 m; typically
taken as one-half of the pressure above this height.

• The loading per unit length of the column can be obtained from the wind pressure by
multiplying by the effective column diameter: the outside diameter plus an allowance for
the thermal insulation and attachments, such as pipes and ladders

81
 3. Eccentric loads (tall vessels)
• auxiliary equipment attached to a tall vessel will subject the vessel to a bending moment
if the centre of gravity of the equipment does not coincide with the centre line of the
vessel

• The moment produced by small fittings, such as ladders, pipes and manways, will be
small and can be neglected.

• That produced by heavy equipment, such as reflux condensers can be significant and
should be considered.

• The moment is given by:

82
4. Earthquake Loading

• The movement of the earth’s surface during an earthquake

produces horizontal shear forces on tall, self-supported vessels, the
magnitude of which increases from the base upward.
• The total shear force on the vessel:

(ae/g) = seismic constant, Ce

 Design of saddles
• The saddles must be designed to withstand the load imposed by the weight of
the vessel and contents. They are constructed of bricks or concrete, or are
fabricated from steel plate.

• The contact angle should not be less than 120 0, and will not normally be
greater than 150 0. Wear plates are often welded to the shell wall to reinforce
the wall over the area of contact with the saddle.

• Saddles are the most commonly used support for horizontal cylindrical vessels,
A horizontal vessel will normally be supported at two cross-sections;
.

84
 .
• .

85
86
87
 Skirt supports

• A skirt support consists of a cylindrical or conical shell welded to the base of

the vessel.

• A flange at the bottom of the skirt transmits the load to the foundations.

• The skirt may be welded to the bottom head of the vessel

• Skirt supports are recommended for vertical vessels as they do not impose
concentrated loads on the vessel shell; they are particularly suitable for use
with tall columns subject to wind loading

• The skirt thickness must be sufficient to withstand the dead-weight loads

and bending moments imposed on it by the vessel; it will not be under the
vessel pressure

88
Typical skirt-support designs (a) Straight skirt
(b) Conical skirt

The skirt may be welded to the bottom head of

the vessel (a); or welded flush with the shell,(b)
or welded to the outside of the vessel shell (c)

89
 Skirt thickness
The skirt thickness must be sufficient to withstand the dead-weight loads and bending
moments imposed on it by the vessel; it will not be under the vessel pressure.

where Ms= maximum bending moment, evaluated at the base of the skirt (due to wind,
seismic and eccentric loads),
W= total weight of the vessel and contents,
Ds = inside diameter of the skirt, at the base,
ts = skirt thickness
90
• The skirt thickness should be such that under the worst combination of wind and dead-
weight loading the following design criteria are not exceeded

• where fs = maximum allowable design stress for the skirt material, normally taken at
ambient temperature, 20 0C
• J = weld joint factor, if applicable,
• ϴs = base angle of a conical skirt, normally 80 0C to 90 0C.
• Ds = inside diameter of the skirt, at the base
• The minimum thickness should be not less than 6 mm.

91
 Non pressure vessels (LIQUID STORAGE TANKS)
• Vertical cylindrical tanks, with flat bases and conical roofs, are universally used for the bulk
storage of liquids at atmospheric pressure.

• The main load to be considered in the design of these tanks is the hydrostatic pressure of
the liquid, but the tanks must also be designed to withstand wind loading .

• The minimum wall thickness required to resist the hydrostatic pressure can be given

92
Force vs. Stress

93
 Force vs. Stress
Force: That which changes, or tends to change,
body motion

Newton's first law of motion: F=ma

mass in kg; acceleration in m/s2
1 Newton (1N) = 1kg m/s2

Forces are vector quantities; they have

magnitude and direction.

94
 Cont’d…
In order to understand the equations in pressure vessel design, it
is important to go over some of the basics of Stress.
A body /structure like that of pressure vessel is a deformable one
as a result of a system of applied forces.

95
 Cont’d …
The system of forces that may act on a body are body forces and
surface forces.
 Body forces: act on every point within a body (acting along
the entire volume).
With in the domain of forces in pressure vessels, we can talk
about:
 gravity(dead weight)
F = mg
 seismic loads (due to earthquake).

96
 Cont’d…
 Surface forces: act on a specific surface in a body (acting along
the external surface of the body)
•As far as the surface forces are concerned, we can mention fluid
pressure-which is what a pressure vessel is primarily designed for.
•Other surface forces might include contact forces due to preload
in bolted joints.
•Under the action of body and surface forces, the body is in
equilibrium.

97
 Concept of Stress
•If we consider the road of cross-sectional area, A, subjected to
a tensile load, F.
 There the quantity F/A is called stress , s.
 This concept is generalized to the concept of stress at a point.
 Let us consider a section of a body subjected to body forces
and surface forces.
• From below Figure shows a cutaway section through the
body.
o This section contains a small area A and is oriented with an
outward normal n.

98
Concept of Stress

99
 Concept of Stress
•The internal force F is resolved in a normal component Fn
and an in-plane component Fi
•The normal stress and the shear stress are given by:

•The shear stress may be further resolved into two in-plane

components (orthogonal to each other).

100
 Cont’d…
 Stress may be thought of as a description of force
concentration
s = F/A

what about units of stress?

1N/m2 = 1 Pa

100 MPa = 1 kbar

101
 Example

vertical force = rVg = rL3g

vertical stress = rL3g/L2 = rgL

rgL = (2700 kg/m3)(10m/s2)(1500m) = 40500000 Pa

= 40.5 MPa = .405 kbar

102
  a stress traction (pulling
something over a
surface) is a vector, like
force

 A stress traction can be resolved into normal and shear stress

components
 normal stress: stress perpendicular to plane
 shear stress: stress parallel to plane

103
 Stress State
 A positive sign is used to indicate a tensile stress (tension)
 A negative sign to indicate a compressive stress (compression).
Normal Stress: tension (+); compression (-)
Shear Stress: CW(+); CCW(-)
F

Positive normal

104
 Stress State
Now consider at each point O in the body of figure below, three
mutually perpendicular planes, the X- plane, the y-plane, and the z
plane.
Across each plane we have a normal component ,which for one
plane will be denoted as x and the two in plane components of
xy and xz

105
 Normal & Shear components of stress
Normal stress is perpendicular to the cross section,  (sigma).
Shear stress is parallel to the cross section,  (tau). First subscript
y indicates the axis that
y
is perpendicular to the
face
xy
3D case yx
Second
yz xy subscript
indicates the
zy x positive
xz direction of the
zx x shear stress
Due to equilibrium condition;

z xy = yx
zx = xz
zy = yz 106
z
 Normal & Shear components of stress
Two Dimensional Case
y

yx
xy

x x

xy
yx

y 107
 Stress state
The normal stresses, σx and σy, could be due to a direct tensile
force or to bending.
If the normal stresses were compressive (negative), the vectors
would be pointing in the opposite sense, into the stress element.

The shear stress could be due to direct shear, torsional shear, or

vertical shear stress.
The double-subscript notation helps to orient the direction of
shear stresses.
o For example, xy indicates the shear stress acting on the
element face that is perpendicular to the x axis and parallel to
the y-axis.

108
 Stress state
A positive shear stress is one that tends to rotate the stress
element clockwise
 In the Second figure above, xy is positive and yx is negative.
Their magnitudes must be equal to maintain the element in
equilibrium.
 With the stress element defined, the objectives of the
remaining analysis are to determine the maximum normal stress,
and the planes on which these stresses occur.

109
 Principal Stresses
The state of stress at a point in a structural member under a
complex system of loading is described by the magnitude and
direction of the principal stresses.
 The principal stresses are the maximum values of the normal
stresses at the point; which act on planes on which the shear stress
is zero.

110
 Principal Stresses

3D Case
 If we consider the state of stress at P referenced to principal
axes and we let the principal stresses be ordered according to σI
> 2 >  3 .

3 - (x + y + z) 2 + (x y + x z + y z - xy - xz - yz)  - (x y

z - 2 xy xz yz - x yz - y xz - z xy) = 0
 The three non-imaginary roots are the principal stresses

111
 Principal Stresses

2D Case
 In a two-dimensional stress system, the principal stresses at
any point are related to the normal stresses in the x and y
directions x and y and the shear stress xy at the point by the
following equation:

1 >  2

1, 2 = (x + y)/2 ± [ (x - y)/2]2 + (xy) 2]

112
 Maximum Normal Stresses
 The combination of the applied normal and shear
stresses that produces the maximum normal stress is
called the maximum principal stress, 1.
1 = (x + y)/2 + [ (x - y)/2]2 + (xy)2

 The minimum principal stress, 2 equals

2 = (x + y)/2 - [ (x - y)/2]2 + (xy)2

113