Petroleum-Based Asphalts

Asphalt Cement Composition

Composition of the asphalt influences binder
behavior and performance of the asphalt
concrete
Asphaltenes - larger, discrete solid (black)
inclusions; high viscosity component
Resins - solid or semisolid at room temp;
fluid when heated, brittle when cold
Oils - colorless liquid; low viscosity
Measuring Physical Properties
Asphalt cements have traditionally been graded
according to:
Penetration (PEN) on AC and AR
Viscosity on asphalt cement (AC)
Viscosity on aged residue (AR)
Performance Grading
 Penetration Test
It measures the hardness or softness of bitumen by
measuring the depth in tenths of a millimeter to which a
standard loaded needle will penetrate vertically in 5 seconds.
Penetration of 100g weight in 5s at 25oC (77oF) is
measured in units of 0.1 mm (e.g., 70 PEN = 7 mm
penetration)

A grade of 40/50 bitumen means the penetration value is in the

range 40 to 50 at standard test conditions. In hot climates, a lower
penetration grade is preferred.
Asphalt Cement Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow
Temperature/Viscosity Relationships
Viscosity –nominated by η
 = η(d/dt) for an ideally viscous material
(Newtonian fluid)
η given in units of Poise (P)
1P = 1x10-1 Pascal sec (Pa s)
= 1 (g/cm) s
Viscosity
If the ball is thrown on the floor and rebounds, it is said to be
elastic . If the ball is left on the table and begins to flow and
flatten gradually under its own weight, it is said to be viscous

Water η = 1x10-3 Pa s, at room temp

Motor oil = 1
Asphalt = 105 to 107, at service temps
= 1, when heated
Lava = 1011-1012
Viscosity Grades
AC grades are based on measurements of
absolute viscosity of asphalt tested at 60oC
AR grades are based on the absolute viscosity
tested at 60oC of asphalt after being aged in a
rolling thin-film oven
The viscosity grades indicate the viscosity in
hundreds of Poises ±20%.
AC Grades
Specifications for Asphalt Cement by Viscosity
Grade
Penetration Grades
Specifications for Asphalt Cement by Penetration
Graded
AR Grades
Specifications for Asphalt Cement by AR Grades
Comparison of Grading Schemes
Modifications to Asphalt Cement
Cutbacks
 Allow easy placement without high T
Emulsions
Allow easy placement without high T, lower
toxicity/fire hazard
Air-blown asphalt
Less susceptible to T
Cutbacks
Volatile components are mixed with asphalt
cement to make a liquid product. After
volatilization, asphalt binder remains.
Medium Curing (MC):
Asphalt cement mixed with a solvent of
intermediate volatility, such as kerosene.
Uses a softer asphalt base than RC cutbacks.
MC-30, MC-70, MC-250, MC-800, MC-3000
Cutbacks
Slow Curing (SC):
Asphalt cement mixed with a low volatile oil/fuel.
SC-70, SC-250, SC-800, SC-3000
Gradation based kinematic viscosity measured at 140F.
Ex. Viscosity of SC-800 is 800+20% centistokes
Cutbacks
Rapid Curing (RC):
Asphalt cement mixed with a volatile solvent, such as
gasoline or naphtha. Uses a harder asphalt base than MC
cutbacks.
RC-70, RC-250, RC-800, RC-3000
Composition of cutbacks

• RC cutback asphalt is used primarily for surface treatments and tack

coat.
• MC cutbacks asphalt is typically used for prime coat, surface
treatments,
• SC cutbacks may be used as surface spray for dust control (least
common).
Asphalt Emulsions
Asphalt emulsions = water + asphalt + emulsifying
agent
= suspension of asphalt in water or water in asphalt;
may be cationic, anionic, nonionic
Asphalt Emulsions (cont’d)
 Some advantages:
 Like cutbacks, asphalt emulsions can be use with hot or
cold aggregate
 Unlike asphalt cements, can be used on dry, damp, or wet
aggregate
 Avoids fire and toxicity issues associated with cutbacks
 Applications include: cold in-place recycling, cold mixing,
tack coats, surface treatment, patching
Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA)
Volumetric Properties
Asphalt Concrete
HMA Volumetric Terms
Bulk specific gravity (BSG) of compacted HMA
Maximum/apparent specific gravity
Air voids
Effective specific gravity of aggregate
Voids in mineral aggregate, VMA
Voids filled with asphalt, VFA
Nomenclatures
• VMA = Voids in Mineral Aggregate
• Vmb = Bulk volume of compacted mix
• Vmm = Voidless volume of mix
• Va = Volume of air
• Vb = Volume of asphalt
• Vba = Volume of absorbed asphalt
• Vsb = Volume of mineral aggregate
• Vse = Volume of mineral aggregate (by
effective specific gravity)
 Volumetric Relationships

Va VM
A
Vb V
ba

Vse V
Vmb mm
Vsb
BSG of Compacted HMA
AC mixed with agg. and compacted into sample

Mass agg. and AC

Gmb =
Vol. agg., AC, air voids
Testing
Mixing of asphalt and aggregate
Compaction of sample
Mass of dry sample
Mass under water
Mass saturated surface dry (SSD)
Testing Obtain mass of dry
compacted sample
Testing

Obtain mass of
specimen at SSD
Calculations
Gmb = A / ( B - C )

Where:
A = mass of dry sample
B = mass of SSD sample
C = mass of sample under water
Maximum Specific Gravity
 Loose (uncompacted) mixture

Mass agg. and AC

Gmm =
Vol. agg. and AC
Testing
Mixing of asphalt and aggregate
Mass in air
Mass under water
Testing Loose Mix at
Room
Temperature
 Testing

Residual
Manometer
Metal Bowl with Lid

Vacuum Pump

Shaker Table
Calculations
Gmm = A / ( A - C )

Where:
A = mass of dry sample
C = mass of sample under water
Percent Air Voids
 Calculated using both specific gravities

Gmb
Air voids = ( 1 - ) 100
Gmm

Mass agg + AC
Vol. agg, AC, Air Voids Vol. agg, AC
=
Mass agg + AC Vol. agg, AC, Air Voids
Vol. agg, AC
Example Calculations
Air voids:
 Gmb = 2.222
Gmm = 2.423

( 1 - 2.222 / 2.423 ) 100 = 8.3 %

Effective Specific Gravity
Surface Voids Mass, dry
Gse =
Effective Volume

Solid Agg.
Vol. of water-perm. voids
Particle
not filled with asphalt

Absorbed asphalt

Effective volume = volume of solid aggregate particle +

volume of surface voids not filled with asphalt
 Effective Specific Gravity

100 - Pb
Gse =
100 - Pb
Gmm Gb

Gse is an aggregate property

Example Calculations
Mixed with 5 % asphalt cement
Gmm = 2.535
Gb = 1.03

100 - 5
Gse = = 2. 770
100 - 5
2.535 1.03
 Voids in Mineral Aggregate

VMA = 100 - Gmb Ps

Gsb

VMA is an indication of film thickness on

the surface of the aggregate
 Example Calculations
Given that Gmb = 2.455, Ps = 95%, and Gsb = 2.703

(2.455) (95)
VMA = 100 - = 13.7
2.703
 Voids Filled with Asphalt

VFA = VMA - Va
100 x
VMA

VFA is the percent of VMA that

is filled with asphalt cement
Mass Relationships

Ma = 0

Mb = Pb MT
MT = M b + Ms

Ms = PsMT
 Percent Binder Absorbed

Pba = Gse - Gsb

100 ( ) Gb
Gsb Gse

Pba is the percent of absorbed

asphalt by mass of aggregate
 Effective Asphalt Content

Pba
Pbe = Pb - Ps
100

The effective asphalt content is the

total asphalt content minus the
percent lost to absorption
(based on mass of total mix).
Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA)
Volumetric Properties
Using
Phase Diagrams
 VOL (cm3 ) Gmb = 2.329 MASS (g)
air
asphalt
Gb = 1.015
Pb = 5% by mix
absorbed asph
1.000
aggregate
Gsb = 2.705
Gse = 2.731
 VOL (cm3 ) Gmb = 2.329 MASS (g)
air Ma = 0
asphalt
Gb = 1.015
Pb = 5% by mix
absorbed asph
1.000 Mm = 1.0 x 2.329 x 1.0 = 2.329
aggregate
Gsb = 2.705
Gse = 2.731 w = 1g/cc

M = V x G x 1.000
 VOL (cm3 ) Gmb = 2.329 MASS (g)
air 0
asphalt
Gb = 1.015
Pb = 5% by mix Mb = 0.05 x 2.329 = 0.116
absorbed asph
1.000 2.329
aggregate
Gsb = 2.705
Ms = 2.329 - 0.116 = 2.213
Gse = 2.731
 VOL (cm3 ) MASS (g)
air 0

asphalt
Gb = 1.015 0.116

absorbed asph
1.000 2.329
aggregate
0.818 Gsb = 2.705
0.810 2.213
Gse = 2.731

Vse = 2.213 = 0.810

2.731x 1.0 M
Vsb = 2.213 = 0.818 V=
2.705x 1.0 G x 1.000
 VOL (cm3 ) MASS (g)
air 0

asphalt
0.114 Gb = 1.015 0.116

0.008 absorbed asph

1.000 2.329
aggregate
0.818 0.810 Gsb = 2.705
2.213
Gse = 2.731

Vb = 0.116 = 0.114 M
1.015 x 1.0 V=
Vba = 0.818 - 0.810 = 0.008
G x 1.000
 VOL (cm3 ) MASS (g)
0.076 air 0

asphalt
0.106
0.114 Gb = 1.015 0.116

0.008 absorbed asph

1.000 2.329
aggregate
0.818 0.810 Gsb = 2.705
2.213
Gse = 2.731

Vbe = 0.114 - 0.008 = 0.106

Va = 1.000 - 0.114 - 0.810 = 0.076

 VOL (cm3 ) MASS (g)
0.076 air 0

0.106 asphalt
0.108
0.114 Gb = 1.015 0.116

0.008 absorbed asph 0.008

1.000 2.329
aggregate
0.818 0.810 Gsb = 2.705
2.213
Gse = 2.731

M = V x G x 1.000 Mbe = 0.106 x 1.015 x 1.000 = 0.108

Mba = 0.116 - 0.108 = 0.008

 VOL (cm3 ) MASS (g)
0.076 air 0

0.182 asphalt
0.106 0.108
0.114 Gb = 1.015 0.116

0.008 absorbed asph 0.008

1.000 2.329
aggregate
0.818 0.810 Gsb = 2.705
2.213
Gse = 2.731

Air Voids = 0.076 x 100 = 7.6 %

VMA = Vbe + Va = ( 0.106 + 0.076 ) x 100 = 18.2 %

 VOL (cm3 ) MASS (g)
0.076 air 0

0.182 asphalt
0.106 0.108
0.114 Gb = 1.015 0.116

0.008 absorbed asph 0.008

1.000 2.329
aggregate
0.818 0.810 Gsb = 2.705
2.213
Gse = 2.731

Air Voids = 7.6 %

VMA = 18.2 %
VFA = ( 0.106 / 0.182 ) x 100 = 58.2 %
 VOL (cm3 ) MASS (g)
0.076 air 0

0.182 asphalt
0.106 0.108
0.114 Gb = 1.015 0.116

0.008 absorbed asph 0.008

1.000 2.329
aggregate
0.818 0.810 Gsb = 2.705
2.213
Gse = 2.731

Air Voids = 7.6 % Eff. Asp. Cont. = ( 0.108 / 2.329 ) x 100 = 4.6 %
VMA = 18.2 %
VFA = 58.2 %
 VOL (cm3 ) MASS (g)
0.076 air 0

0.182 asphalt
0.106 0.108
0.114 Gb = 1.015 0.116

0.008 absorbed asph 0.008

1.000 2.329
aggregate
0.818 0.810 Gsb = 2.705
2.213
Gse = 2.731

Air Voids = 7.6% Effective Asphalt Content = 4.6%

VMA = 18.2 % Abs. Asph. Cont. = ( 0.008 / 2.213 ) x 100 = 0.4%
VFA = 58.2 %
 VOL (cm3 ) MASS (g)
0.076 air 0

0.182 asphalt
0.106 0.108
0.114 Gb = 1.015 0.116

0.008 absorbed asph 0.008

1.000 2.329
aggregate
0.818 0.810 Gsb = 2.705
2.213
Gse = 2.731

Air Voids = 7.6% Max Theo Sp Grav = 2.329 = 2.521

VMA = 18.2 % 1.000 - 0.076
VFA = 58.2 % 1.000
 VOL (cm3 ) MASS (g)
0.076 air 0

0.182 asphalt
0.106 0.108
0.114 Gb = 1.015 0.116

0.008 absorbed asph 0.008

1.000 2.329
aggregate
0.818 0.810 Gsb = 2.705
2.213
Gse = 2.731

Air Voids = 7.6% Effective Asphalt Content = 4.6%

VMA = 18.2 % Absorbed Asphalt Content = 0.4%
VFA = 58.2 % Max Theo Sp Grav = 2.521
Proportioning Asphalt Concrete Mixtures
OBJECTIVE:
to proportion an economical mixture which is
stable, flexible, durable, imperméables, fatigue
résistant, skid resistant, and workable.
However, it is not always possible to optimize all
of these properties. Thus, compromises must be
made.
Definitions of Desirable Properties

• Stability: ability of pavement to resist

deformation under applied loads
• Stability improved with an angular, rough
textured, strong aggregate with a dense grading
• Want just enough asphalt to coat aggregate to
provide adhesion. If asphalt content is too high,
it will act as a lubricant and reduce particle-to-
particle contact between the aggregate.
Definitions of Desirable Properties (contn’d)

• Flexibilty: ability of pavement to withstand

deflections and bending (caused by long-term
settlement of the base or subgrade layers)
without cracking.
• Flexibility is maximized with an open-graded
aggregate
• Flexibility increasing with a higher asphalt
content
– Conflict, then, between requirements for stability
and flexibility!
Definitions of Desirable Properties
(contn’d)
• Durability: ability to resist disintegration due to
weathering (oxidation and stripping) and the
abrasive action of traffic.
• Durability is maximized when aggregate
particles are completely covered with asphalt
and no air voids exist which would facilitate the
entry of water, air, or light.
• Because of durability considerations, air content
is limited to 5% maximum, and typically ranges
from 3 - 5%.
Definitions of Desirable Properties
(contn’d)
Impermeability: resistance to passage of air and
water into the pavement or through it is
dependent on the content and interconnectivity
of the voids in the mixture.
Impermeability is maximized at a higher asphalt
content, with dense aggregate gradations, and
good compaction.
Definitions of Desirable Properties
(contn’d)
• Fatigue Resistance: ability of the mixture to resist
failure or fracture under repeated traffic loading.
• Mixtures with higher asphalt content and densely
graded aggregate generally have greater fatigue
resistance than those with lower cement contents and
open graded aggregate.
Definitions of Desirable Properties
(contn’d)
Skid Resistance:
• Skid Resistance is maximized at lower asphalt
contents
• Vehicles are more likely to skid when excess
asphalt is present on the pavement surface
‘flushing’ - migration of asphalt to wearing
surface; can occur when air content is too low,
such that when additional compaction of the
pavement occurs during loading, asphalt cement
has no voids left to fill and flows to surface.
Definitions of Desirable Properties
(contn’d)
Workability: the ease with which a paving
mixture can be placed and compacted
Workability is maximized with a higher binder
content and rounded aggregate
Those features that improve workability may
decrease stability and skid resistance.
Mixture Characterization

Measurement and Analysis of the response of

HMA mixtures to Load, Deformation, and/or
Environment

Material Properties Measured are used for

Pavement Design and Analysis
Mixture Characterization (cont’d)
May be Performed for many Reasons:
Mix Design
Performance Prediction
Empirical & Fundamental Tests

Empirical Tests
Measure an Empirical Property
At best only correlated to Pavement Performance
Fundamental Tests
Measure Fundamental Engineering Properties
Model Performance using Constitutive Material
Models
Predict Performance
Test Methods

• Empirical
– Marshall Stability and Flow
– Hveem Stability
– Wheel Tracking Devices
– Moisture Sensitivity
• Fundamental
– Modulus of Elasticity
– Resilient Modulus
– Dynamic Complex Modulus
– Flexural Stiffness
– Indirect Tensile Strength
– Creep
Marshall Stability and Flow
Procedures in Marshall Method

AGGREGATE EVALUATION
1. Determine acceptability of aggregate
– LA Abrasion;
– Sulfate soundness;
– Deleterious substance;
– Polishing;
– Crushed face count;
– Particle flatness and elongation
2. If acceptable, perform other tests:
– gradation,
– Specific Gravity,
– absorption
Procedures in Marshall Method …
AC EVALUATION
1. Determine appropriate asphalt cement grade for
type and geographical location of mix.
2. Determine asphalt SG and plot viscosity on
temp-viscosity plot.
3. Determine the ranges of mixing and compaction
temperatures from plot.
– Mix temp should provide a viscosity of 170 ± 20
centistokes
– Compaction temp should provide a viscosity of 280
± 30 centistokes
Procedures in Marshall Method …
ASPHALT CONCRETE TESTING
Prepare 3 samples each at estimated asphalt
content (Pb) and at Pb - 0.5%, Pb + 0.5% and Pb
+1%.
Calculate
unit weight (density),
% air voids, and
VMA
Measure Marshall stability and flow
Marshall Stability and Flow

• The "stability" value represents the maximum load in

kN (lbs.) the sample can bear under this loading
condition, while the "flow" value represents the
deformation, in 0.01 in., of the sample at the
maximum load.
– High stability => high shear strength
– Small flow => more brittle
– Large flow => more ductile
Marshall Method (cont’d)

• Analyze results by plotting % asphalt vs. density,

stability, flow, air void content, and VMA
• Determine percent asphalt by weight by taking
average percent asphalt for these values:
– Highest Marshall stability
– Highest unit weight
– Air content at middle of allowable range (~4%)
Typical test results from
a Marshall mix design
Marshall Method (cont’d)

• Determine the stability, flow, air voids content,

VMA of the mix at the optimum asphalt
content from the graphs and compare with the
Marshall mix acceptance criteria specified
established by highway and government
agencies according to the local service
conditions.
Marshall Stability and Flow
Table 8-7: Suggested Marshall Criteria for Close Graded Bitumen
Macadams (ERA)
• Design criteria are given in Table 8-9 for sand
bitumen mixes used as base course materials for
tropical roads carrying medium to light traffic.
Hveem Stabilometer
Wheel Track Testing
Used to Identify Rut Susceptible Mixtures
Minimum Rut Depth after X wheel passes
Maximum Rutting Rate
Moisture Sensitivity
PURWheel Device
Fundamental Tests

Elastic Modulus –
Resilient Modulus (ASTM D4123)
Dynamic Complex Modulus (ASTM D3497)
Flexural Fatigue Test
Resilient Modulus
Dynamic Complex Modulus
 Superpave Mix Design Method
reading ass??
The superpave mix design method consists of seven
basic steps:
1. Aggregate selection
2. Asphalt binder selection
3. Sample preparation (including compaction)
4. Performance tests
5. Density and voids calculations
6. Optimum asphalt binder content selection
7. Moisture susceptibility evaluation
Asphalt Concrete Durability

Aging
• Substantial changes occur in the structure,
composition, and mechanical behavior of
asphalt due to:
– Volatilization of light HC fractions
– Oxidation
– Physical hardening
• These processes can increase the asphalt
viscosity and decrease ductility of asphalt and
asphalt concrete.
• Aging can occur during mixing, placing, and
service.
• Volatilization - common during hot mixing
• Oxidation - slow process generally;
– occurs over time

– occurs more readily in warmer environments and in

poorly compacted pavements

• Physical Hardening - most pronounced at T<0oC

Fatigue Cracking
Low Temperature Cracking
Sometimes Things Go Wrong
Reason For Compaction
To prevent further compaction
To provide shear strength or resistance to rutting
To ensure the mixture is water proof
To prevent excessive oxidation of the asphalt binder
Factors Affecting Compaction

Mix Properties –
Aggregate
Asphalt
Mix Temperature
Layer Thickness
Environmental Factors
Rollers
Temperature is critical