CHAPTER 8

CELL:
THE UNIT OF LIFE

BIOLOGY CLASS11
 OBJECTIVES
AFTER THE COMPLETION OF THIS CHAPTER, YOU WILL BE ABLE TO-

• Define/describe cell, unicellular and multicellular organisms

• Explain modern cell theory and name the scientists and their contribution to formulation of cell theory
• Describe the general structure and composition of the cell
• Describe prokaryotic cell
• Justify the role of different structures and modifications of prokaryotic membrane
• Draw and explain the plasma membrane, fluid mosaic model and transport across it.
• Describe the structure and functions of cell wall
• List and describe the components, structure and function of endomembrane system
• Draw and describe the structure of Chloroplast and mitochondria
• Justify the semiautonomous nature of chloroplast and mitochondria
• Describe the structure and function of cilia and flagella
• Summarize the structure of interphase nucleus
• Compare types of chromosomes on the basis of centromere position
 WHAT IS A CELL?

WHY CELL IS CALLED AS THE

FUNDAMENTAL STRUCTURAL AND
FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF LIFE?
 • EUKARYOTIC CELLS
WE ARE GOING TO • CELL MEMBRANE
• CELL WALL
LEARN ABOUT • ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
• WHAT IS A CELL? Golgi Apparatus
• CELL THEORY Lysosomes
• AN OVERVIEW OF CELL Vacuoles
• MITOCHONDRIA
• PROKARYOTIC CELLS • PLASTIDS
CELL ENVELOPE AND ITS • RIBOSOMES
MODIFICATIONS • CYTOSKELETON
RIBOSOME AND INCLUSION • CILLIA AND FLAGELA
BODIES • CENTROSOME AND CENTRIOLES
• NUCLEUS
• MICROBODIES
 WHAT IS A CELL?
• Cell: The word cell is derived from a latin word “cellula” which means a small room.
• FUNDAMENTAL STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF LIFE.
• CELL IS CAPABLE OF:
1. Independent survival
2. Performing essential functions of life.

DISCOVERY:
• Dead cell (Cork): Robert Hooke
• Living Cell: Anton Von Leuwenhoek
• Nucleus: Robert Brown
• Cell theory (1838-1839):
CELL
THEORY
 Matthias Schleiden (German botanist) and Theodore Schwann (British zoologist), together gave the
postulates of Cell theory:

 1. All living organisms are composed of cells and cell products

 2. All activities occurring inside an organism is a result of interactions among constituent cells.

• Drawback of Cell Theory: Schleiden and Schwann failed to explain the origin of cells.

• Modified Cell Theory (1855):

 Rudolf Virchow modified the hypotheses given by Shleiden and Schwann and gave the cell theory its
final shape.
 He explained the origin of cells.
 He gave the famous “Omnis cellula-e cellula” statement, which means that cells arise from pre-existing
cells.
• Every cell is made up of 3 main components:
A) Cell Membrane/Plasma membrane
CELL: AN OVERVIEW
B) Nucleus
C) Cytoplasm

• All activities inside a cell and with its environment are possible due to these features.
• NOTE: In plants, fungi and bacteria, in addition to plasma membrane, there is presence of a distinct Cell Wall.

a. Plasma membrane/ Cell membrane:

 It is the outermost, protective layer found in all cells.

b. Cytoplasm:
 It is the main arena of cellular activities in a cell. It is where all the chemical reactions take place.

c. Nucleus:
 It is regarded as the brain of the cell as it controls all the activities of a cell
 It contains the genetic material (DNA).
STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF A CELL
 CYTOPLASM
• It is fluid filled content inside a cell surrounded by the plasma membrane.
• It is main arena of all the cellular activities within the cell.
• It is the site where all the biochemical reactions occur that enables a cell to thrive and
maintain itself i.e. to keep the cell in a “living state”

• It has 2 components:

A) Cytosol: It is the fluid part of cytoplasm which is rich in water, ions and various
nutrients.

B) Cell organelles: These are tiny microscopic organ-like entities present embedded in
the cytosol of the cytoplasm
 CELL ORGANELLES AND ITS TYPES
Cell organelles are organ-like microscopic structures present in the cytoplasm of a cell.

• These organelles help the cell to perform basic functions such as :

• respiration
• obtaining nutrition
• clearing of waste material
• inter and intracellular transport
• forming proteins

For the reasons stated above, cell is known as the fundamental and basic functional
unit of life.
 CELL ORGANELLES

MEMBRANELESS SINGLE MEMNBRANE DOUBLE MEMBRANE

Ribosomes 1.Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) 1.Mitochondria

Centrosome 2. Golgi body 2. Plastids

3. Vacuoles

4. Lysosomes
 VARIATIONS IN CELL
I: In Number:
 Depending upon the number of cells, organisms are of 2 types:
 VARIATIONS IN CELL
• II: In size :
 Cells being microscopic are measured in micrometers (μm)
 1 μm =10⁻⁶ meter
 Cells differ greatly in size.

S.NO EXAMPLES SIZE

1. Mycoplasma: smallest cell 0.3 μm
2. Bacterial cell 3-5 μm
3. Eukarayotic cell 10-20
4. Ostrich’s egg: largest isolated cell 15 cm
5. Acetabularia: largest plant cell (Alage) 10 cm
6. Human RBC 7μm in diameter
7. Neuron: longest cell 120-150 cm
Mycoplasma Human ovum
0.1-1 μm 1mm RBC 6-8 μm and WBC 12-17 μm

Neuron
1m

Chlamydomonas Amoeba
10-30 μm 500 μm
 VARIATIONS IN CELL

• III: In shape : Cells also vary greatly in shape.

 Spherical : Egg cell

 Stellate (star shaped): Bone cell
 Spindle shaped: Smooth muscle cell
 VARIATIONS IN CELL
• IV: With respect to the complexity of Nucleus :
 Cells are of 2 main types: Prokaryotic and Eukarayotic
PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL
1. Pro= primitive, karyon= nucleus 1. Eu= true, karyon= nucleus

2. These cells have a poorly defined nucleus as they lack 2. These cells have a well developed nucleus.
nuclear membrane.
3. A well developed nucleus has 4 components: Nuclear
3. Instead they have NUCLEOID, a space present in the membrane, nucleoplasm, nucleolus and genetic material
cell that has the genetic material. (DNA)

4. These cells lack membrane bound cell organelles. 4. These have membrane bound cell organelles.

5. Examples: Bacteria, Mycoplasma, Blue-green algae. 5. Examples: Amoeba, fungi, Plants, Animals, Humans
PROKARYOTIC CELL
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF PROKARYOTIC CELL
• These cells are represented by the members of Kingdom Monera, that includes bacteria, blue-
green algae, Mycoplasma and PPLO (pleuro pneumonia like organisms).
• These are generally smaller, simpler organisms which multiply rapidly.
• They may be motile or non-motile, motile prokaryotic organisms possess flagella.
• The organization of the prokaryotic cell is fundamentally similar though they exhibit a wide
variety of shapes
• They show variation in shape and size, the 4 types of shapes found are:

1. Coccus: Spherical
2. Bacillus: Rod shaped
3. Spirillum: Spiral shaped
4. Vibrio: Comma shaped
Bacterial cell shapes
 STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF PROKARYOTIC CELL

• All prokaryotes have a well defined cell wall except Mycoplasma.

• The plasma membrane of the prokaryotic cell is similar in structure to that of a
eukaryotic cell.
• An infolding of the plasma membrane called Mesosome is also present.
• The fluid filled matrix of the cell is the cytoplasm that lacks membrane bound cell
organelles.
• The only cell organelle that a prokaryotic cell has is the ribosome.
• The cell lacks a well defined nucleus, instead has a region where the genetic material
(DNA) is placed called the NUCLEOID.
• Prokaryotes have unique storage bodies found in the cytoplasm called Inclusion bodies.
Electron micrograph: Prokaryotic v/s Eukaryotic
 A. CELL ENVELOPE OF PROKARYOTIC CELL

• Most prokaryotes have a chemically complex cell envelope.

• It is a 3 layered tightly packed structure which acts a single unit of
protection.
• Cell envelope consists of:
1.Outermost Glycocalyx
2.Cell Wall
3.Plasma membrane
a) GLYCOCALYX:
It is the outer most protective layer of the cell which differs in
composition and thickness.
It is made up of muco-peptides or polysaccharides.
It can be of 2 types:
 A) Slime layer
 B) Capsule SLIME LAYER CAPSULE
When the glycocalyx is in the form of a loose When the glycocalyx is in the form of a tough,
sheath it is called slime layer. hard covering it is called capsule.

It helps to prevent the cell from desiccation (loss It gives a gummy and sticky nature to the cell,
of water and nutrients) hence allows bacterium to adhere to the host.
b) CELL WALL:
 It provides rigidity and shape to the bacterial cell.

 Bacterial cell can be classified into 2 types depending upon Gram Staining, viz, Gram positive
Bacteria and Gram negative Bacteria

 Composition of Cell wall: It is made up of peptidoglycan or murien.

 Peptidoglycan has 2 components:
 A) Peptide part: It is made up of amino acids NOTE: NAM is N-acetyl muramic acid
and NAG is N-acetyl glucosamine
 B) Glycan part: It is made up of sugars (NAM and NAG)

c) PLASMA MEMBRANE:
 It is also selectively permeable like eukaryotic cell, that is allows the movement of only few
selected substances across the membrane.
 GRAM STAINING
 It was given by Christian Gram: It’s a technique of differential staining of bacterial cells.
 Steps of Gram staining:

• Observation: Some bacterial cells retain the purple stain, they are positive for the stain hence called
GRAM POSITIVE, While the ones which appear pink (due to safranin) did not retain the purple color,
hence, are called GRAM NEGATIVE.
c) PLASMA MEMBRANE: It is also selectively permeable like eukaryotic cell, that is allows the
movement of only few selected substances across the membrane.
Modifications/ Extensions of Plasma membrane:

1. Chromatophores:
 Single membranous extensions of the plasma membrane into the cytoplasm.
 It contains pigment for photosynthesis.
 It is found in certain bacterial cells such as Blue green algae/ Cyanobacteria.

2. Mesosomes:
 It is an infolding of the plasma membrane.
 It can be in the form of: vesicles, tubules, lamellae.
 Functions of Mesosome:
 Cell wall formation
 DNA replication and distribution to daughter cells.
 Analogous to mitochondria of eukaryotic cell, as it also helps in respiration.
 As it’s an infolding of the plasma membrane, it also increases surface area of the plasma membrane.
 B. SURFACE STRUCTURES OF PROKARYOTIC CELLS
FLAGELLA FIMBRIAE PILI
It is a thin, long, These are small, bristle like These are elongated tubular
membranous extension structures arising from the structures.
arising from the cell cell.
It is usually fewer in number. They are numerous in Usually 1 in number.
number.

They help in motility. They are known to help in They help in formation of
attachment to the host. conjugation tube.
It is made up of flagellin It is made up of small It is made up of pilin protein.
protein. helically coiled proteins.
It has 3 parts: Filament
Hook
Basal body
Fimbrae

Flagella
Sex pilus
 C. NUCLEOID OF PROKARYOTIC CELL

• Prokaryotic organisms lack a well defined nucleus, instead they have an undefined
nuclear region called the NUCLEOID.
• It lacks the nuclear membrane and contains only the genetic material i.e. DNA.
• The DNA is double stranded, closed, circular and compact.
• Prokaryotes have a single chromosome denoted by circular DNA which is their genomic
DNA.
• In addition to genomic DNA , certain bacteria also have Plasmids.

• PLASMIDS:
• these are extra-chromosomal, small, circular DNA molecules.
• They have certain extra genes on them that provides unique feature to a bacterial cell.
 D. INCLUSION BODIES
Stores of reserve material in prokaryotic cells
Not bound by any membrane and lie freely in cytoplasm
E.g. :
 Phosphate granules
 Cyanophycean granules
 Glycogen granules
 Sulphur granules

 GAS VACUOLES: Found in Blue green algae, purple and green photosynthetic bacteria
 E. RIBOSOMES
 Ribosomes are the only cell organelles found in prokaryotes. These are
membrane-less, dense particles of size 15 nm by 20 nm.
 Occurrence: They are found associated with the plasma membrane and lie
freely in the cytoplasm.
 Structure: Ribosomes are ribonucleo-protein complexes i.e. It is made up
of RNA and protein. It is made up of 2 sub-units: a small sub unit and a
large sub unit.
 Function: These serve as the site of protein synthesis.
 Note: Several ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA to form a
Polysome. It’s a characteristic feature of prokaryotes,
Prokaryotic ribosomes

Polysomes
A prokaryotic cell
EUKARYOTIC CELL
 CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES

• Eukaryotes are represented by the members of Kingdom Protista. Fungi, Plants and
Animals.
• These organisms show “extensive compartmentalization” through the presence of
“membrane bound cell organelles”.
• Eukaryotic cells have a well defined nucleus, and their genetic material is organized into
chromosomes.
• Presence of cytoskeleton is a characteristic feature of eukaryotes.
• Presence of Cilia (a locomotory organ) also is also an exclusive feature of eukaryotic.

• The organization of the prokaryotic cell is fundamentally similar though they exhibit a
wide variety of shapes
PLANT CELL V/S ANIMAL CELL
Fig: A Typical Plant Cell Fig: A Typical Animal Cell
 CELL BOUNDARIES: INTRODUCTION
• Every living cell has an outermost protective layer which provides a boundary to the cell.
• The cell boundaries are of 2 main types:
A) Cell wall
B) Plasma membrane

CELL WALL PLASMA MEMBRANE

It is the outermost protective layer It is a protective layer which is found in

found in only plant, bacteria and fungal all cells.
cells.
It is the outermost protective layer
found in animal cells.
 CELL WALL
• It is the rigid, non-living, supportive, protective, fully permeable covering present outside the
plasma membrane.
• Occurrence: It is found in plant, bacteria and fungal cells only.
• Composition:
1. Higher Plants – made up of cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectin and proteins.
2. Fungi – made up of chitin
3. Bacteria –made up of peptidoglycan
4. Algae- Cellulose, galactans, mannans, minerals like calcium carbonate.

• Functions:
• It provides mechanical strength and support to the cell.
• It is freely permeable to water and other substances in a solution.
• It protects the cell from injury, and it protects the cell against pathogens.
• It also helps in cell-cell interaction.
 PLANT CELL WALL

• The cell wall of plants consists of 2 regions: Primary wall and Secondary

• Primary wall:
A young plant cell wall is made up of a single layer of cells is the primary wall.
It is thin, elastic and capable of extension and growth.
It is made up of cellulose.

• Secondary wall:
In mature cells, more wall material gets added inner to the primary cell wall.
These layers form the secondary cell wall.
Secondary cell wall brings about thickening.
It is made up of lignin.
• MIDDLE LAMELLA:

It is a characteristic feature of plant cells .

It is the cementing layer found between 2 plant cells, which holds the
neighboring cells together.
It is thin, sticky and amorphous in nature.
It is made up of Calcium and Magnesium Pectate.

• PLASMODESMATA:
• It is a characteristic feature of plant cells .
The cell wall and middle lamella maybe traversed by cytoplasmic bridges
which connect the cytoplasm of neighboring plant cells.
These cytoplasmic bridges are called Plasmodemata or Plasmodesmatal
connections.
 PLASMA MEMBRANE
 It is the outermost, flexible, living layer covering of the cell that separates the contents
of the cell from its environment.
 Biochemists have deduced the structure of plasma membrane post the discovery of
electron microscope in 1950.

 STRUCTURE: It is primarily made up of organic molecules like lipids, proteins and

carbohydrates. Carbohydrates may also be present in the from of Glycolipids and
Gylcoproteins.
 There is also presence of Cholesterol: It promotes stability to the membrane
 The amount of lipid and protein present in a plasma membrane varies from cell to cell.
 The most extensively studied structure of plasma membrane is: Human RBC
 Human RBC: 52% Protein
40% Lipid
~=8% Carbohydrates
 STRUCTURE OF PLASMA MEMBRANE Important

FLUID MOSIAC MODEL: SINGER AND NICOLSON (1972)

 The most widely accepted structure of Plasma membrane is the

Fluid Mosaic Model.
 According to this model, plasma membrane is a phospholipid
bilayer with proteins present in or on it.
 A typical phospholipid molecule has 2 parts:
A) Polar Head: It is round and hydrophilic in nature (water loving)
B) Non-polar Tails: These are 2 in number. It is made up of saturated
hydrocarbons and is hydrophobic in nature (water repelling).
 FLUID MOSIAC MODEL: SINGER AND NICOLSON (1972)

 The phospholipids are arranged within the membrane in such manner that their
polar head face outwards while the nonpoar hydrophobic tails face towards the
inner part. This ensures that the nonpolar hydrophobic tail are protected from the
environment.
 Plasma membrane also has proteins.
 Depending upon the ease of extraction, membrane proteins are of 2 types:
INTEGRAL PERIPHERAL
These proteins are either partially or These proteins are located on the surface of
completely embedded in the lipid bilayer the lipid bilayer therefore are called
therefore are called integrated/ intrinsic peripheral / extrinsic proteins.
proteins.

These are difficult to extract. These can be easily extracted.

Fig: fluid Mosaic Model of Plasma Membrane
 FLUID MOSAIC MODEL: SPECIAL POINTS

 The plasma membrane is amphipathic in nature : As it has both polar and non-polar
part to it.
 FLUIDITY WITHIN THE MEMBRANE: The ability to move is referred to as fluidity.
The plasma membrane is quasi fluid / semi fluid in nature i.e. it has fluidity.
 The fluid nature of membrane is important for cell growth, cell extensions, secretion,
endocytosis, cell division etc.

 Types of movement:
A) Lipids: Rotational, Flip-Flop and Lateral
B) Proteins: These are large sized molecules, hence show only lateral movement
within the lipid bilayer.
 FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA MEMBRANE
 NATURE: Plasma membrane allows the entry and exit of only some substances in
and out of the cell, therefore is called SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE in nature.

 FUNCTION:
1. It provides shape to the cell and mechanical support.
2. It acts as a mechanical barrier between inner components of the cell and the
external environment.
3. Helps in cell division and cell growth
4. Sometimes it may modify itself into finger like projections called villi for increasing
the surface area of absorption.
5. Transport: It facilitates the movement of only selected substances through the cell
membrane.
 3 MAIN TYPES OF TRANSPORT

 Passive: Movement of substances such as gases, neutral solutes from higher concentration to lower,
with or without the help of transporter proteins but without the use of ATP is called Passive
Transport.

 Active: Movement of substances from lower concentration to higher using energy i.e. ATP and
Transporter proteins is called Active transport. Eg: Na+/K+ Pump

 Bulk: In this type of transport, large amount of substances such as food are transported in bulk

TYPES OF TRANSPORT

PASSIVE ACTIVE BULK

DIFFUSION OSMOSIS ENDOCYTOSIS EXOCYTOSIS

 ENDOMEMBRANE
SINGLE-MEMBRANE SYSTEM
BOUND CELL
ORGANELLES
 ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM: (EMS)
• It is a system of single-membrane bound cell organelles that function in a
coordinated manner.
• Each of the single membrane bound cell organelle is distinct in terms of
structure and function but they come together to form EMS.

• There are 4 such single membrane bound cell organelles.

1. G: Golgi body,
2. ER: Endoplasmic Reticulum;
3. L: Lysosome
4. Vacuoles
 1. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

Characteristic features:

• ER is a network of single membrane bound tiny tubular structures found scattered

in the cytoplasm.

• These structures can be Cisternae (elongated, parallelly arranged structures),

Tubules (tube like structures) and Vesicles (small bag like structures).

• Hence it divides the cytoplasm (intracellular space) into 2 compartments: Luminal

(inside ER) and Extra-Luminal (in cytoplasm).
• Depending upon the association with ribosomes, ER is of two types
 GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF ER:
• a) ER works in close association with Golgi body.

• b) ER serves as channels of transport for various

substances.

• c) Produces both lipids and proteins essential

for the cell and its membrane

• d) It is known help in membrane biogenesis, i.e.

formation of plasma membrane as it forms both
lipids and proteins.
 2. GOLGI APPARATUS/ GOLGI BODY
Characteristic features:
• These are densely stained structures found near the nucleus.
• Golgi apparatus consists of numerous single membrane bound flat, disc-
shaped cisternae, arranged almost in parallel to one another in stacks.
• Golgi cisternae are concentrically arranged near the nucleus with 2 distinct
faces:
FUNCTIONS OF GOLGI BODY: (PPT)

Processing and Modification of proteins and lipids sent by the RER and
SER respectively into Glycoproteins and Glycolipids.

Packaging materials such as proteins and lipids to be sent intra-cellularly

or to outside the cell.

Transport of various substances in bag like vesicles.

Formation of lysosomes.
 GOLGI BODY WORKS IN CLOSE ASSOCIATION WITH ER
Golgi body and ER are closely associated with each other because of the
following:

Proteins and lipids synthesized by RER and SER respectively get

transported in vesicles to the cis face of golgi.

The golgi body modifies the proteins into Gylcoproteins and lipids into
Glycolipids.

The modified lipids and proteins move towards the trans face of golgi.

From the trans face to the targets: intracellular (within the cell) or
outside the cell.
 3. LYSOSOMES
Characteristic features:

• ➢ A lysosome is a specialized single membrane bound vesicle that holds a

variety of digestive enzymes.
• ➢ It is formed by the process of packaging in Golgi body.
• ➢ But the enzymes of Lysosomes are formed by RER.
• ➢ The various enzymes found in lysosomes are HYDROLASES: lipases,
proteases, nucleases, carbohydrases etc.

NOTE: All enzymes are proteins, and proteins are synthesized in and by Ribosomes (RER)
FUNCTIONS OF LYSOSOMES

Digestion of various substances such as

• ➢

food, or to clean the cell of any worn out

material with the help of enzymes. Hence
work as efficient tools of waste disposal.

• ➢ During any cellular disturbance in a cell,

or when the cell gets damaged, lysosomes
may burst and release its digestive
enzymes thereby killing the cell in which it
was present; hence they are also called
suicidal bags.
 4. VACUOLES
Characteristic features:

• These are storage bodies OR membrane bound space fund in the cytoplasm of
wide variety of organisms ranging from bacteria to higher plants.
• It contains sap, excretory products and various other materials.

• Types of Vacuoles: They are of 4 types:

A. SAP
B. FOOD
C. CONTRACTILE
D. GAS
A) Sap Vacuole:
• i. Exclusively found in plants.
• ii. Occupy 50-90% volume of the plant cell.
• iii. The membrane of sap vacuole is called TONOPLAST. It facilitates the transport of a number
of ions against the concentration gradient (i.e. from lower concentration to higher
concentration)
• iv. Stores water along with essential amino acids, proteins etc.
• v. It provides rigidity and turgidity to the plant cell.

B) Food: Found in single celled organisms such as Amoeba, stores food.

C) Contractile: Found in single celled organisms such as Amoeba, Paramecium and helps in
excretion.

D) Gas: Found in certain bacteria, it provides buoyancy and helps them to float in water.
 MITOCHONDRIA
DOUBLE
MEMBRANE PLASTIDS
BOUND CELL
ORGANELLES:
(Chloroplast)
NUCLEUS
 MITOCHONDRIA
• They are not readily visible under the microscope, thus are stained by a vital
stain: Janus green.

• Shape: These are cylindrical or sausage shaped double membrane bound

cell organelles distributed in the cytoplasm.

• Size: Each sausage shaped or cylindrical mitochondrion has a diameter of

0.2-1 um and length of 1-4 um.

• Number: Number varies depending upon the physiological activity of the

cell.
Transmission Electron micrograph of mitochondria
STRUCTURE OF MITOCHONDRIA

• Each mitochondrion is a double membrane bound structure with the outer and inner membrane dividing its
lumen (space inside) into 2 main compartments:
a) Outer compartment: Also called as the Inter-Membrane Space. It is the space between the 2 membranes.
b) Inner compartment: Also called as Matrix. It lies inside the inner membrane
• The 2 membranes have their own specific enzymes.
Outer mitochondrial membrane: It is a smooth and a continuous layer. It is relatively more permeable.
Inner mitochondrial membrane: It forms numerous infoldings called cristae towards the matrix. It is
selectively permeable.
• Cristae: It increases the surface area of absorption.
• It is studded with numerous knob like structures called F1-F0 particles or oxysomes.
• Each F1-F0 particle has a base stalk and head. The head has the ATP sythetase enzyme.
• Matrix: It is the fluid filled homogenous content of the mitochondria. It is contains a single, double stranded (ds),
circular DNA, a few RNA molecules and ribosomes (70s).
• NOTE: As the mitochondria contain its own genetic material i.e. ds DNA and ribosomes. It is able it to synthesize
some of its proteins, hence, it is regarded as a SEMI-AUTONOMOUS CELL ORGANELLE.
FUNCTIONS OF MITOCHINDRIA

1. Mitochondria are the main sites of aerobic respiration. These organelles

oxidize food to CO2 and water and Energy.

2. Energy produced by Mitochondria is stored in the form of ATP (Adenosine

Tri Phosphate).

3. This energy helps us to perform various processes therefore mitochondria

are regarded as the powerhouse of the cell.
PLASTIDS Depending upon pigments, plastids are of three main types:

• Occurrence: Found in
all plants and
Euglenoids (Euglena
and Euglena like
organisms)

• Unlike Mitochondria,
they are readily
observed under the
microscope as they
are large.
CHLOROPLAST
• Occurrence: Majority of chloroplasts are found in
the mesophyll cells of leaves.

• Shape: Lens shaped. Oval, Spherical, Ribbon shaped

(In spirogyra), Discoid, Cup shaped (in
Chlamydomonas)

• Size: Variable length (5-10um) and width (2-4um)

• Number: Varies from cell to cell. (1 per cell of

Chlamydomonas) 20-40 per cell of mesophyll.
STRUCTURE OF A CHLOROPLAST

• Each chloroplast is a double membrane bound structure with the outer and inner
membrane.
• Outer membrane is more permeable as compared to the inner membrane.
• Space enclosed by the inner membrane is matrix like substance called Stroma.
• Stroma: The fluid filled space inside the chloroplast is stroma.
• It has numerous disc like structures in it called “Thylakoid”
• Chlorophyll pigment is present in the thyllakoid.
• The thylakoid are arranged in stacks called grana (granum: singular).
• Two grana are connected to each other by a linker called stroma lamellae.
• Stroma has a single, double stranded, circular DNA, ribosomes (70s).
• It also has enzymes for both carbohydrate and protein synthesis.
• NOTE: Just like mitochondria, Chloroplast also contain its own genetic material i.e. ds DNA and ribosomes. It is able it to
synthesize some of its proteins, hence, it is regarded as a SEMI-AUTONOMOUS CELL ORGANELLE.
Transmission Electron Micrograph of Chloroplast
 FUNCTIONS OF CHLOROPLAST:

• It helps in formation of organic food i.e. glucose by utilizing solar

energy, CO2 and H2O by the process of Photosynthesis.

• Contains photosynthetic pigment: Chlorophyll.

• It helps in release of Oxygen (during photosynthesis).

 RIBOSOMES/PALADE BODIES
• Discovered by: George Palade.
• They appear as granular structures under the microscope.
• Composition: Chemically they are made up of rRNA and proteins, therefore are also
called as ribonucleio-proteins.
• Structure: Each ribosome is made up of 2 sub units: A large sub unit and a small sub unit.
• Types: 2 main types depending upon sedimentation coefficient (which is an indirect
measure of density and size).
 CYTOSKELETON
• The cytoskeleton is an elaborate network of proteinaceous fibres found
scattered in the cytoplasm of the eukaryotic cells.

• FUNCTIONS: Maintenance of shape of the cell, Mechanical support to the cell,

organizes the organelles, and facilitates transport of molecules, Motility and cell
division.

• It is made up of 3 types of fibres:

• MICROTUBULES
• MICROFILAMENTS
• INTERMEDIATE FIMAMENTS
 CENTROSOME AND CENTRIOLES
• It is a membrane-less cell organelle
found in almost all eukaryotic cells like
animal cell, fungi, and algae but not in
higher plants.
• Structure: Centrosome is a cell
organelle containing 2 cylindrical
structures called centrioles.
• The 2 centrioles are at right angles to
each other, hence are also called
diplosome.
• The 2 centrioles are surrounded by an
amorphous cloud like material called
centrosphere or kinoplasm.
 T.S CENTRIOLE
• Each centriole has a cart-wheel like appearance.
• It is made up of 9 evenly spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin protein.
• Each peripheral tubulin fibril is a triplet (made up of 3 sub units)
• Each adjacent triplet is also liked to one another.
• The central part of the centrioles is proteinaceous and is called Hub.
• The 9 peripheral triplets are connected to the hub by 9 Radial Spokes.
• Centriole has a 9+0 Arrangement.

FUNCTION OF CENTROSOME:
• 1. Centrioles form the basal body of cilia and flagella.
• 2. They help in formation of spindle fibres during cell division in animal cells only
 CILIA AND FLAGELLA
• These are membrane-bound extensions of the plasma membrane.
• They arise from centrioles-like structure called basal body.
 T.S CILIA AND FLAGELLA
• The central core of flagellum or cilium is
called axoneme.
• Axoneme has 9 doublets of peripherally
arranged tubulin fibrils (microtubules) and
a pair of centrally placed microtubules;
hence the arrangement is 9+2.
• The 9 peripheral doublets are connected to
one another by linkers while the central
tubules are connected by bridges and are
enclosed by a sheath.
• The central sheath serves as the point of
attachment for each one of the 9 radial
spokes which connects to all the 9 radial
doublets.
THE NUCLEUS
• DISCOVERY: Nucleus was discovered by Robert Brown.
• LOCATION: Nucleus usually occupies the central position in an animal cell, but in case
of a plant cell, due to the presence of a large vacuole it is pushed to the corner.
• STAINING: In order to visualize the nucleus, Iodine or Methylene blue stain can be
used.
• APPEARANCE: Nucleus appears as a darkly colored spherical, oval, dot like structure.
• There is usually 1 nucleus per cell, but there are organisms which have more than 1
nucleus. These are:
• 1. Paramoecium: 2 nuclei
• 2. Fungi: many nuclei
• There are certain cells which lack nucleus, these are:
• 1. Mature RBC
• 2. Mature Seive tube
Position of nucleus in plant and animal cell
• Depending upon the nuclear structure, organisms are of 2 types:
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic.

NUCLEUS IN EUKARAYOTIC ORGANISMS:

• Eukaryotic organisms like Amoeba, fungi, plants and animals have a well
defined nucleus or a true nucleus.
• A well-defined nucleus has the following 4 parts:
a) Nuclear membrane/ Nuclear envelope
b) Nucleoplasm
c) Nucleolus
d) Genetic material
 STRUCTURE OF A EUKARAYOTIC NUCLEUS
a) Nuclear Envelope/ Nuclear membrane:

 The nucleus in eukaryotes is surrounded by a 2 layered membrane called the

nuclear membrane.
 The space between the 2 membranes is called perinuclear space (10-50 nm)
 The outer nuclear membrane is associated with the RER, while the inner
membrane is not.
 The nuclear membrane is not continuous, but has tiny pores on it called the
Nucleopores. These are formed by the fusion of the 2 membranes.
 Nucleopores help in the transfer of substances such as RNA, proteins from inside the
nucleus to the outside i.e. to the cytoplasm and vice versa, hence the transport is
bidirectional.
b) Nucleoplasm:
 It is the fluid filled space inside a nucleus.

c) Nucleolus:
 It is a membraneless spherical ball like structure present in the nucleoplasm of the nucleus.
 As its membraneless, it is in continuation with the rest of the nucleoplasm.
 It helps in ribosome formation as it actively synthesizes rRNA.

d) Genetic material:
 The genetic material is the material which contains information for inheritance of characters from
parents to their children.
 This genetic material is a nucleic acid called: DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
 DNA molecules contain the information necessary for constructing and organizing cells.
 CHROMOSOME
• These are rod shaped structures formed during cell division. These are composed of
DNA and proteins.
• Each chromosome is made up of 2 sister chromatids which are held together at the
centromere/ primary constriction.
• On either sides of chromosomes are disc shaped structures present called
Kinetochores. Kinetochores serve as the place of attachment for spindle fibres during
cell division.
• A few chromosomes may have an additional constriction named Secondary
constriction near their ends. Part of chromosome beyond secondary constriction is
called a satellite. A chromosome with a satellite is called SAT chromosome.
• The functional segments of DNA on a chromosome are called GENES.
• Genes control characters or features of an organism. Eg: There is a gene for eye
colour, height of an individual etc.
STRUCTURE OF A CHROMOSOME
TYPES OF CHROMOSOMES: BASED ON THE POSITION OF CENTROMERE
KARYOTYPE: IT IS AN INDIVIDUAL'S COLLECTION OF ALL HIS 46 CHROMOSOMES
 THE NUCLEUS: FUNCTION
1. Nucleus is regarded as the Brain of the cell, or the Control room of a cell as it controls
and coordinates all the functions of a cell.

2. It is a storehouse for the heredity material in the form DNA.

3. It plays a major role in transmission of characters from the parent to the child.

4. It helps in cell growth and development by directing the chemical activities of the cell.

5. The nucleus plays a central role in Cellular reproduction, the process by which a cell
divides to form 2 new cells.
 MICROBODIES

• Many membrane bound minute vesicles that contain various

enzymes and are present in both plant and animal cells are
called microbodies.

• Example:
• PEROXISOMES
• SPHAEROSOMES
• GLYOXYSOMES
MAJOR TOPICS DISCUSSED

• CELL
• OVERVIEW OF CELL
• PROKARYOTIC CELL
• EUKARYOTIC CELL
• ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
• DOUBLE MEMBRANED ORGANELLES
• NUCLEUS
THANKYOU!
A common characteristic feature of plant sieve tube cells and most of
mammalian erythrocytes is
• (a) Absence of mitochondria (b) Presence of cell wall
• (c) Presence of haemoglobin (d) Absence of nucleus

Select one which is not true for ribosomes.

• (a) Made of two subunits (b) Form polysome
• (c) May attach to mRNA (d) Have no role in protein synthesis

Which one of these is not a eukaryote? .

• (a) Euglena (b) Anabaena (c) Spirogyra (d) Agaricus
Different cells have different sizes. Arrange the following cells in an ascending
order of their size. Choose the correct option among the following:
• (i) Mycoplasma
• (ii) Ostrich eggs
• (iii) Human RBCs
• (iv) Bacteria

Which of the following features is common to prokaryotes and many

eukaryotes?
• (a) Chromatin material present
• (b) Cell wall present
• (c) Nuclear membrane present
• (d) Membrane-bound subcellular organelles present
Who proposed the fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane?
• (a) Camillo Golgi (b) Schleiden and Schwann
• (c) Singer and Nicolson (d) Robert Brown

Which of the following statements is true for a secretory cell?

• (a) Golgi apparatus is absent.
• (b) Rough Endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is easily observed in the cell.
• (c) Only Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is present.
• (d) Secretory granules are formed in nucleus.

The stain used to visualise mitochondria is

(a) Fast green (b) Saffanin (c) Aceto carmine(d) Janus green
What is a tonoplast?
• (a) Outer membrane of mitochondria
• (b) Inner membrane of chloroplast
• (c) Membrane boundary of the vacuole of plant cells
• (d) Cell membrane of a plant cell.

Which of the following is not true for an eukaryotic cell?

• (a) Cell wall is made up of pepticjoglycans
• (b) It has 80S type of ribosome present in the cytoplasm
• (c) Mitochondria contain circular DNA
• (d) Membrane bound organelles are present

Which of the following statements is not true for plasma membrane?

• (a) It is present in both plant and animal cell.
• (b) Lipid is present as bilayer in it. .
• (c) Proteins are present integrated as well as loosely associated with the lipid bilayer.
• (d) Carbohydrates are never found in it.
Plastids differ from mitochondria on the basis of following features? Mark the
right answer.
• (a) Presence of two layers of membrane
• (b) Presence of ribosome
• (c) Presence of thylakoids
• (d) Presence of DNA

Which of the following is not a function of cytoskeleton in a cell?

• (a) Intracellular transport
• (b) Maintenance of cell shape and structure
• (c) Support of the organelle
• (d) Cell motility