LESSON I:

Basic Principles & Concepts

Instructor:
Engr. Lester Vincent C. Villanueva
THERMODYNAMICS
 It is a science that deals with heat and work, and properties of substances that bear a
relation to heat and work.
 It is the branch of science that deals with energy, its conversion from one form to another,
and the movement of energy from one location to another.
 Derived from the Greek words “therme”, which means heat, and “dynamis”, which means
strength or motion.
 Examples of related properties of matters are density, specific volume, pressure,
temperature, and internal energy.
THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS
 It is anything, a certain quantity of matter, a certain volume in space, or a collection of
matter or space of fixed quantity that is the subject of interest for a particular study and
analysis.
 For purposes of analysis, thermodynamic systems have boundaries. The space outside the
boundaries is called “surroundings” and the space inside is called “system”.

Kinds of Thermodynamic Systems

1. Closed System
2. Open System
3. Isolated System
Closed System
 It is a system whose boundaries are not crossed by working substance but crossed by
energy.
 It is also called as “Controlled Mass System”.
 There are two types of closed system – the “non-flow closed system”, and the “steady-flow
closed system”.
Open System
 It is a thermodynamic system in which both the working substance and energy cross its
boundaries.
 It is also called as “Controlled Volume System”.
 There are two types of open system – the “steady-flow open system”, and the “unsteady-
flow or transient flow open system”

Isolated System
 It is a thermodynamic system in which neither mass nor energy crosses its boundaries.
BASIC LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
1. First Law of Thermodynamics
It deals with law of conservation of energy. The law of conservation of energy states that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it just transforms into another form.
2. Second Law of Thermodynamics
It deals with the direction of flow of heat energy, that is from the higher-temperature body
to lower-temperature body, and the property known as “Entropy”.
3. Third Law of Thermodynamics
Deals with the restriction of all physical systems to the temperature regime that excludes
absolute zero. It states that at absolute zero, the entropy of a pure substance in some perfect
crystalline form becomes zero.
4. Zeroth Law
It is the law concerning thermal equilibrium and is the basis for temperature
measurement. It states that when two bodies, isolated from other environment, are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, the two are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
THERMODYNAMIC STATE
 The condition of a substance is defined by thermodynamic properties. The word
“condition” is not the acceptable thermodynamic term but the correct term is “state”. The
term is generally defined as the mode or condition of being.

THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
 These are descriptive characteristics of the system used to compute the changes of energy
that occur in a system or working substance.
 These are characteristics or attributes of matter which can be evaluated quantitatively.

Types of Thermodynamic Properties

1. Intensive properties
 These are thermodynamic properties that are independent of the mass of the substance in
the system. (i.e temperature, pressure, density, and voltage)
2. Extensive properties
 These are thermodynamic properties that are dependent upon the mass of the substance in
the system. These properties are total values. (i.e. total volume, total internal energy, or
total enthalpy)
3. Specific Properties
 These are properties that are considered for a unit mass, and are intensive by definition.
(i.e. specific volume, specific internal energy, or specific enthalpy)
Different Thermodynamic Properties
1. Mass – is the absolute quantity of matter in a substance or body. It is a quantity
that does not change with the change of gravity.
2. Weight – is the force of gravity on the body.
where: W – weight , N, kN, ,
m – mass of object, kg, lb
g – gravitational pull ,
Note: 1; 1
Example No. 1
Find the weight of a object at standard condition.
(solution to be discussed by instructor)

3. Density – it is the mass per unit volume of a substance/fluid.

where: 𝜌 = density, , ,
m = mass of substance, kg, lb
V = volume of substance, , , ft, in
Example No. 2
Two liquids of different densities (; ) were poured together into a 100-Liter container, filling it.
If the resulting density of the mixture is 800, find the respective amount of liquids used. Also,
find the weight of the mixture.
(solution to be discussed by instructor)
4. Specific Volume – it is the volume per unit mass of a substance/fluid. It is also defined as
the reciprocal of density.

where: = specific volume,, ,

5. Specific Weight – it is the force of gravity per unit volume of a substance/fluid.

where: = specific weight of a substance, , ,

= W = weight of substance/fluid, N, ,
Example No. 3
A cylinder 6 inches in diameter and 10 inches high contains oil that has a density of 850.
Determine the weight of the oil, in
(solution to be discussed by instructor)
6. Specific Gravity – it is the ratio of the density/specific weight of a substance/fluid to
the density/specific weight of water at standard condition.

where: = sp. Weight of substance, , ,

= sp. Weight of water at std. condition
=
= density of substance, , ,
= density of water, , ,
=
Example No. 4
The fuel tank of a car holds 60-Liters of gasoline. Assuming that the gasoline has a specific
gravity of 0.74, determine the weight of the gasoline in the tank, in .
(solution to be discussed by instructor)
Example No. 5
It is proposed by gasoline dealers to sell gasoline by “Liters”. If gasoline has a density of ,
what is the weight of 60 Liters of gasoline?
(solution to be discussed by instructor)
Example No. 6
A household oil tank can hold 275 gallons of oil. If oil has a specific weight of , how many
pounds of oil will there be in a full tank?
(solution to be discussed by instructor)

7. Pressure – it is an intensive thermodynamic property and basically defined as the force per
unit area.

where: = pressure, , Mpa

F = normal force, kN, ,
A = area, , , ,
Classifications of Pressure
a. Gauge Pressure – it is the pressure of a substance or system measured by a pressure gauge
or a pressure-measuring instrument.
b. Atmospheric/Barometric Pressure – it is the force exerted by a column of atmospheric air
per unit area; or it is the pressure of the atmosphere at a certain location.
Standard Atmospheric Pressure (Conversion of Units)
1 atmosphere (atm) = 29.92” Hg
= 760 mm Hg
= 760 Torr
= 101.325 kPa
= 14.7 (psi)
= 34 ft
= 1.0332
Special Pressure Conversion
1 bar = 100 kPa = 0.10 MPa ; 1 mm Hg = 1 Torr
c. Vacuum pressure – it is known as negative pressure
d. Absolute Pressure – it is the algebraic sum of the barometric pressure and the gauge
pressure.

where: = Absolute Pressure, kPaa, psia

barometric/atmospheric kPa, psi
gauge pressure, kPag, psig
Note: Positive sign (+) is used when is greater than .
Negative sign (-) is used when is lower than .
e. Fluid/Hydrostatic Pressure – it is the force exerted by a column of fluid per unit area.
but:
Thus:
= but:
Therefore:

h
Example No. 7
Convert the following given pressure to the indicated unit.
a. 366.77 kPag – psia
b. 8909.67 mm Hg gauge – kPaa
c. 96.67” Hg gauge – ft abs
d. 466.43 gauge - Torr abs
(solution to be discussed by instructor)

Example No. 8
Perform the following operations and convert the final answer to absolute pressure for each
item
a. 16.88 kPag + 325.52 psig ~ mm Hg abs
b. 664.93” Hg gauge – 99.98 kPag ~ abs
c. 88.63 kPag + 345.57 ” Hg gauge ~ ft abs
(solution to be discussed by instructor)
Pressure Measuring Devices
a. Barometer – it is a pressure measuring instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure
b. Pressure Gauge – it is a pressure-measuring instrument used to measure gauge pressure
directly by its dial indicator.
c. Manometer – it is a pressure-measuring instrument used o measure gauge pressure of the
system using U-Tube wherein water or mercury is the working substance.

~ for pressure at point A

~ for pressure at point B
Hypothetically:
Example No. 9
A 30-m vertical column of fluid, is located where . Find the pressure at the base of the
column, in kPag.
(solution to be discussed by instructor)

Example No. 10
The pressure inside the boiler is . The barometric pressure of the atmosphere is 768 mm Hg
gauge. Find the absolute pressure in the boiler.
(solution to be discussed by instructor)

Example No. 11
Determine the pressure, in kPaa, at points A and B in the figure shown if the density of
mercury is and that of water is .
8. Temperature – it is defined as the measure of coldness and hotness of a body.
Classifications of Temperature
ARBITRARY TEMPERATURES
a. Celsius Scale (°C) – Fahrenheit Scale (°F)
~ °F
b. Fahrenheit Scale (°F) ~ Celsius Scale (°C)
~ °C
ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURES
a. Celsius Scale (°C) ~ Kelvin Scale (K)
~K
b. Fahrenheit Scale (°F) ~ Rankine Scale (°R)
~K
Note for Temperature:
 Fahrenheit scale is based on the freezing point of water as 32°F and the boiling point of
water as 212°F at 1 atm. This scales is used for English system of measurement.
 Celsius scale is based on the freezing point of water as 0°C and the boiling point of water
as 100°C at 1 atm. This scales is used for Metric or SI systems of measurement.
 Absolute temperature is the temperature of a body or system in reference to absolute zero.
Rankine is the unit used in the English system while Kelvin is used in the Metric or SI
system of units.

Example No. 12
Fahrenheit and Celsius thermometers are both immersed in fluid and indicate numerical value
of readings.
a.) What is the temperature of the fluid expressed in °R and K?
b.) What is the fluid temperature if the Fahrenheit reading is numerically twice that of Celsius
reading?
(solution to be discussed by instructor)
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
It states that “mass can neither be created nor destroyed, it just transforms into
components.”
Hypothetically:
[mass entering the system] – [mass leaving the system] = [change of mass]

But for steady-flow open system, mass entering the system is equal to the mass leaving the
system, therefore, there is no change in the stored mass of the system.

CONTINUITY EQUATION

where: = mass flow rate entering the system,

= mass flow rate leaving the system,
= density of fluid entering the system, , ,
= density of fluid leaving the system, , ,
= velocity of fluid entering the system,
= velocity of fluid leaving the system,
MASS FLOW RATE EQUATION

where: = mass flow rate,

A = cross-sectional area, , ,
V = velocity of fluid,
VOLUME FLOW RATE EQUATION

where: = volume flow rate, ,

A = cross-sectional area, , ,
V = velocity of fluid,
Example No. 13
A pump discharges fluid into a 2.5-m-per-side cubical tank. The volume flow rate is , and the
fluid has a specific gravity of 1.2. Determine:
a.) The mass flow rate of the fluid
b.) the time required to fill the tank if the tank is initially empty.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Pure substance – a substance that is homogenous in composition and homogenous and
invariable in chemical aggregation
 Working substance – a substance/fluid that receives, transports, and transfer energy
 Simple substance – a substance whose state is defined by two independently variable
intensive thermodynamic properties
 Fluid – a substance that exists, or is regarded as existing, as a continuum characterized by
low resistance to flow and tendency to assume the shape of its container
 Properties – descriptive characteristics used to express the behavior of the system or
substance
 System – that portion of the universe, an atom, a certain quantity of matter, or a certain
volume in space that one wishes to study
 Entropy – the measure of microscopic disorder of a substance
 Energy – it is the capacity of a system or substance to do an effect
 State - descriptive characteristics used to express the behavior of the system or substance.