Genetics – FO 201

Mr. Imakando C. I.
BScED (UNZA), MSc Ecology (PSU – Thailand)
 Probability and Mendelian Inheritance
• Mendel’s laws of segregation and independent assortment reflect the same
rules of probability that apply to;

– tossing a coin

– drawing cards from a deck

– birth in humans

– rolling a dice, etc.,

• Probability scale ranges from 0 to 1

• The probability of all possible outcomes for an event must always add up to 1.
 Probability and Mendelian Inheritance
• Tossing a coin gives an important lesson about probability (every toss
= ½)

• The outcome of any particular toss is independent by what has

happened on previous trails.

• Such a phenomena as in coin tossing is referred to as independent

events.

• Each toss of a coin, whether done sequentially with one coin or

simlutenouesly with many, is independent of every toss.

• Just like two separate coin tosses, the alleles of one gene segregate
into gametes independently of another allele (Mendel’s law of
Multiplication Rule (Monohybrid Crosses)
• The multiplication rule states that to determine the probability that
two or more independent events will occur together in some specific
combination, we multiply the probability of one event by the
probability of the other event.

– e.g. tossing a coin twice, what is the probability that both coins or tosses will
land heads up?

• Application in an F1 monohybrid cross

– Use seed shape as an example “RR and rr”

 Application in an F1 monohybrid cross
• F1 genotype will be Rr.

• Segregation of the F1 heterozygote plants is like flipping a coin in terms of

calculating the probability of each outcome;

– Each egg produced has a ½ chance of carrying the dominant (R) allele and a ½ chance of
carrying the recessive allele (r)

– The same odd applies when it comes to the formation of sperms

• Question: what is the probability that the F2 plant will be;

a. Round ?

b. wrinkled?
Segregation of alleles and fertilization as chance events
 Addition Rule (Monohybrid Crosses)
• According to the addition rule, the probability that two mutually
exclusive events will occur is calculated by adding their individual
probabilities.

– What is the probability that an F2 plant from the previous monohybrid cross will
be heterozygous rather than homozygous?
• Firstly notice that the dominant allele can come from the egg and the recessive allele from the sperm, or
vice versa.

• This means the F1 gamates can combine to produce an offspring with Rr genotype in two mutually
exclusive ways
– What is the probability that an F2 plant from the previous monohybrid cross will be heterozygous
rather than homozygous?

– Note: the multiplication rule gives us the individual probabilities that we add in the addition rule
 Using Rules of Probability in Solving Complex
Genetics Problems
• The rules of probability can be used to predict the outcomes of crosses
involving multiple characters.

• Remember that according to Mendel’s law of independent assortment

“each allelic pair segregates independently during gamete formation”

– Therefore, a dihybrid or other multi-character cross is equivalent to two or more

independent monohybrid crosses occurring simultaneously

• Using the Multiplication and Addition rules, we can determine the

probability of specific genotypes occurring in the F2 generation without
having to using the Punnett square
 Example using a Dihybrid Cross
• Consider seed color and seed shape as an example.

– YyRr in F1 generation

 STEPS:

1) Focus on characters as independent monohybrid crosses (e.g. Yy and Rr)

2) Use a simple Punnett square to determine the probabilities of the offspring

genotypes for that particular character

3) After getting individual probabilities for characters, use the multiplication rule
to determine the probability of each of the genotypes in the F 2 generation.

• Task: what is the probability of getting an offspring with the genotype (a) YYRR
and (b) YyRR in the F2 generation?
 Example of more than two characters
• Lets consider a cross of two pea varieties in which we track the of
three characters

• This will be a trihybird cross between one plant heterozygous for all
three genes (flower color, seed color and seed shape; PpYyRr) and
another plant with purple flowers, green seed and wrinkled seeds
(heterozygous for flower color but homozygous recessive for the
other two characters; Ppyyrr)

• Task: What fraction of the offspring from such a cross will exhibit the
recessive phenotype for at least two of the three characters?
 Example of more than two characters
• STEPS:

1. Write down the parental gametes

2. List down all genotypes you can get to answer your question (in our example, at
least two recessive traits)

3. Calculate the probability for each of the genotypes above by multiplying together
the individual probabilities for the allele pairs.

 Note that in a cross involving heterozygous and homozygous allele pairs (Yy X yy), the
probability of heterozygous offspring is ½ and the probability of homozygous offspring
is ½.

4. Finally use the addition rule to add the probabilities for all the different
genotypes that fulfill the condition of at least two recessive traits
• With time and practice, you’ll be able to solve complex genetics
problems faster by using the rules of probability than by filling in
Punnett squares.
PREDICTING INHERITANCE PATTERNS BY
SIMPLE MENDELIAN GENETICS
 PRINCIPLE: Inheritance Patterns are Often More
Complex the Predicted by Simple Mendelian
Genetics
• Mendel’s pea plant characters had a relatively simple genetic basis

– each character was determined by one gene, with on allele being completely
dominant and the other completely recessive

• In nature, not all heritable characters are determined so simply

– Thus the relationship between genotype and phenotype is rarely straightforward.

• Mendel had failed to explain the more complicated patterns he

observed in crosses involving other pea characters/plant species

– Importance of Mendelian genetics still recognized – the two laws of Mendel apply
to more complex patterns of inheritance
 Extending Mendelian Genetics – Single Gene
• Inheritance of characters determined by a single gene deviate from
simple Mendelian patterns when;

1. alleles are not completely dominant or recessive

– Degree of domniance

2. a particular gene has more than two alleles

– Multiple alleles

3. a single gene produces multiple phenotypes

– Pleiotropy
 DEGREE OF DOMINANCE
• Alleles can show different degrees of dominance and recessiveness in
relation to each other.

• Lets consider the case of Mendel’s plant pea crosses

– F1 offsprings will always look like one of the two parental varieties with the
dominant allele.

– Phenotype of the heterozygote and the dominant homozygote can not be

differentiated

– This phenomena is referred to as COMPLETE DOMINACE

 DEGREE OF DOMINANCE
• For some genes, neither allele is completely dominant

– In such a case the F1 offspring will exhibit a phenotype somewhere between those of the two
parental varieties

– Such a phenomena is referred to as INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE

• Lets use a cross between a red flowered plant and a plant with white
flowers

– What is the phenotypic and genotypic ratios?

– What is the difference with what we saw in the crosses for Mendel’s pea
 DEGREE OF DOMINANCE
• The third scenario is where the two alleles in question each affect the
phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways.

• This phenomena is called CODOMINANCE

• Lets use the MN blood group in humans

– this is determined by codominant alleles for two specific molecules located on

the surface of red blood cells - the M and N molecules

– A single gene locus, at which two allelic variations are possible, determine the
phenotype of this blood group
DEGREE OF DOMINANCE
 DEGREE OF DOMINANCE
MN BLOOD GROUP CONT.,

• If homozygous MM it mean the individual has only M molecules on their red

blood cells

• If homozygous NN it mean that individual has only N molecules on their red

blood cells

• But both M and N molecules are present on the red blood cells f individuals
heterozygous for the M and N alleles (MN)

• NOTE: MN phenotype in humans is not intermediate between the M and N

phenotypes.

– This distinguishes CODOMINANCE from INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE

– Rather a heterozygote (MN) will exhibit both M and N phenotypes since both molecules
are present