OVERVIEW OF

HIGHWAY
DESIGN
INTRODUCTIO
N
INTRODUCTION TO HIGHWAY
DESIGN
Highway design is a process in Highway Engineering where the
most appropriate location, alignment and shape of a highway are
selected.

In highway design, the following highway characteristics are

encouraged:

• Self-explaining roads
• Roads that encourage safe speeds
• Forgiving roadsides
• Functionality
• Predictability
• Homogeneity
INTRODUCTION TO HIGHWAY
DESIGN
Highway design involves the consideration of five (5) major factors:

• Human Factors and Driver Performance

• Vehicles
• Traffic Characteristics
• Physical Elements
• Economic Factors
HUMAN FACTORS AND DRIVER
PERFORMANCE

Determines how effectively will the drivers be able to use the road.

Considerations include:

• Driver tasks that include vehicle control (factors such as sight

distances, reaction times, passing maneuvers are important)
• Use of the facility by older drivers and older pedestrians
• Errors due to driver deficiencies and situational demands
• Speed
VEHICL
ES

Determines what types of vehicles will use the road.

Designers should consider the largest design vehicle that is likely to use the
facility taking also into consideration the frequency of the said vehicle.

This is also important in choosing the design of critical features like

curve radii.
TRAFFIC
CHARACTERISTICS

Primarily involves traffic volumes and traffic characteristics.

Consider the following:

• Average Daily Traffic (ADT)

• Peak hour traffic
• Directional Distribution
• Composition of traffic
• Projection of future traffic demands
PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS

These elements include:

• Highway capacity
• Access control and management
• Pedestrians (bus stops, loading areas, stairs)
• Bicycle facilities and environment (Highways should complement
their environment)
ECONOMIC
FACTORS

Concerned with the cost of a proposed improvement and the benefits

resulting from it.

• Value Engineering
DESIGN
DATA
DESIGN
DATA

Some of the most common data needed for highway design are as
follows:

• Field Survey Information (Topo)

• Alignment
• Spatial Data (Barangays, Protected Sites, Ancestral Domains, etc)
• AADT (Annual Average Daily Traffic)
• Subsurface Investigations
• Catchment Areas (For Cross Drain Design)
• Existing Streams/Rivers
• Existing Structures and Utility Services
FIELD SURVEY
INFORMATION

Topographic Surveys (Topo) is a 3D representation of the project site.

Some of the most common ways of generating a topographic survey is

through the use of:

• Contours
• COGO Points
• DEM
ALIGNME
NT

Also called the Horizontal control, Alignment is the route of the road,
defined as a series of horizontal tangents and curves.

Factors that affect an alignment:

• Design Speed
• Profile
• Road Right-of-Way
• Environmental Impact
• Economic cost
• Political Intervention
SPATIAL
DATA

Spatial data helps in better decision making when designing highways. GIS
software is commonly used for identifying spatial data. QGIS is an example
of a GIS software.

• Barangays, Municipalities
• Critical and Proclaimed Watersheds
• Historical and Heritage Sites
• Mangrove Forests
• Ancestral Domains
AAD
T

Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) is the total volume of vehicle

traffic on a highway or road for a year divided by 365 days.

It is a measurement of how busy a road is.

It directly affects highway characteristics such as:

• Pavement thickness
• Level of Service (LOS)
SUBSURFACE
INVESTIGATIONS

Investigations below the subgrade level.

• For areas with light cut and fill, investigations should be fulfilled with
at least a depth of 1.5 m below the proposed subgrade
• For areas with deep cut, or with large embankments across marshland, or if
the subsurface information indicates the presence of weak layers, the depth
shall depend on the existing topography and nature of the soil
CATCHMENT
AREAS

A catchment are is an area of land that collects water after rainfall. Water
flows down into these areas and collects into rivers and streams.

• Catchment areas are necessary for the design of cross drains

• Catchment areas can be determined using any GIS software
EXISTING
STREAMS/RIVERS

Existing streams/rivers are necessary for the effective planning and

design of box culverts, bridges and possible outfalls.

Can also be determined using GIS software or via field surveys.

EXISTING STRUCTURES AND UTILITY
SERVICES

Existing structures and utility services are necessary especially when the
project involves road widening.

This is acquired through field surveys.

DESIGN
PROCEDURES
DESIGN
PROCEDURES

For road openings:

1. Obtain topographic survey through any of the different methods

2. Plot the data in any road analysis software (Civil 3D, MX Road,
OpenRoads) to model the surface
3. Plot the alignment
4. Adjust the alignment making sure all factors are put into
consideration
5. Generate the existing profile
6. Create a design profile making sure that it passes all design criteria
and standards
7. Create the cross section depending on the necessary features of the
highway
8. Generate the corridor
DESIGN
PROCEDURES

9. Layout the drainage system

10. If using a pipe network for storm drains, do Rainfall Analysis and
Runoff Analysis in Storm and Sanitary Analysis (SSA)
11. If using retaining walls and structures, use slope stability software like
GEO5 for analysis
12. Add traffic signs and markings as needed
13. Iterate until optimum design is achieved
DESIGN CRITERIA
AND STANDARDS
ALIGNMENT
DESIGN

The most efficient alignment is a

straight line.

But, due to several factors, alignment design is not THAT

straightforward.
HORIZONTAL
ALIGNMENT
• Horizontal alignment design should be safe
• It should also be cost efficient
• Must take the impact to the environment into consideration
• Must take right-of-way issues into consideration
• Drivers should feel comfortable

Dos and Don’ts in horizontal alignment design:

• Alignment should follow the natural curve of the ground

• Avoid alignments that will result in a very steep profile
• Avoid sudden curves after a long straight segment
DESIGN
SPEED

Design speed is the target speed at which drivers are intended to travel on a
street, and not, as often misused, the maximum operating speed.

Design Speed (kph) for Specified Design Volume (vehicles per day)
Type of Terrain
Under 50 50 to 250 250 to 400 400 to 1500 1500 to 2000 2000 and over

Level 50 50 60 80 80 80

Rolling 30 50 50 60 60 60

Mountainous 30 30 30 50 50 50
Minimum Recommended Design Speeds for Local Rural Roads

Expressways should be designed for speeds not less than 80 kph.

DESIGN SPEED

Design speed along a highway can vary depending on the topology or

facility requirements

HIGHWAY DESIGN, COMPREHENSIVE TRAINING FOR

DPWH FIELD ENGINEERS 2022
SIGHT
DISTANCES

Sight Distance is the distance at which a driver of a vehicle can see an

object of specified height on the road ahead

• Stopping Sight Distance is the minimum distance required for a

vehicle, travelling at the design speed, to stop before reaching an object
in its path

• Decision Sight Distance is the distance needed for a driver to detect

an unexpected threat, recognize the threat, decide on what to do and
initiate a maneuver to avoid the said threat

• Passing Sight Distance is the minimum distance required to safely

make a normal passing maneuver on 2-lane highways
SUPERELEVATI
ON
• When a vehicle moves in a circular
path, it is forced radially outward by
centrifugal force which is counter-
balanced by the vehicle weight
component due to the roadway tires
and surfacing.
• For a given radius and speed, a set force
must be applied to maintain the vehicle
in a circular path and in road design this
force is provided by the side friction
developed between tire and pavement
and by superelevation
SUPERELEVATI
ON
• Centrifugal force is counteracted by the frictional force
• In portions with superelevation, the weight of the car helps in
counteracting the centrifugal force
RADIUS OF
CURVES
• Flatter curves are recommended
• Curves should fit the natural swing or directional bend of the ground
• Reasonable cost should also be considered rather than to follow
blindly the minimum curvature allowable

Avoid curves with a small radius after a

long straight segment

Avoid kinks
WIDENING OF
CURVES
• Generally, widening of curves is implemented for roads with 2 lanes
• This is to give allowance for long vehicles to complete a turning
maneuver in a curve without falling outside the pavement
VERTICAL
ALIGNMENT
• Also called the Profile, they serve as the vertical control
• The profile should be consistent with topography
• User flat curves and avoid curves of maximum degree
GRADIE
NT
• Maximum grades of 5% are considered appropriate for a design
speed of 110 kph
• For a design speed of 50 kph maximum grades are generally in the
range of 7 to 12% depending on topography
• In the Philippines the maximum grade widely used is 6%
• On through cut sections grade should be at least 0.50% to provide
longitudinal drainage

Allow sufficient grade on through cut

sections to avoid ponding
DRAINAGE
DESIGN
• Water is one of the most common enemy of
any highway infrastructure and can infiltrate parts
of the highway both from above and below
• Water from above can cause erosion of slopes
(Storm water)
• Water from below can push the pavement up or it
can cause the underlying soil to collapse and cause
serious damage to the highway (Water table)
• The alignment of the highway and its
relationship with the drainage systems is the
foremost concern of the hydraulic engineer

• One of the most common software used for drainage design is Storm and
Sanitary Analysis (SSA)
DRAINAGE DESIGN: RAINFALL
ANALYSIS
• Rainfall Intensity Duration Frequency (RIDF) can be acquired
from PAG-ASA
DRAINAGE DESIGN: RUNOFF
ANALYSIS
• Estimate the peak flow and flow hydrograph
• The most commonly used method is the Rational Formula

Qp =
cIA
3.6

where:

Qp = design discharge, m3/s

c = runoff coefficient
I = rainfall intensity within the time of concentration, mm/hr A
= catchment area, km2
DRAINAGE DESIGN: RUNOFF
ANALYSIS
Land Use Minimum Maximum

Residential Area – Densely Built 0.50 0.75

Residential Area – Not Densely Built 0.30 0.55
City Business District 0.70 0.95
Light Industrial Areas 0.50 0.80
Heavy Industrial Areas 0.60 0.90
Parks, Playgrounds, Cemeteries, unpaved open spaces and vacant lots 0.20 0.30
Concrete or Asphalt Pavement 0.90 1.00
Gravel Surfaced Road and Shoulder 0.30 0.60
Rocky Surface 0.70 0.90
Bare Clay Surface (faces of slips, etc.) 0.70 0.90
Forested Land (sandy to clay) 0.30 0.50
Flattish Cultivated Areas (not flooded) / Farmland 0.30 0.50
Steep or Rolling Grassed Areas / Steep gullies not heavily timbered 0.50 0.70
Flooded or Wet Paddies 0.70 0.80

Values of “C” for Use in Rational Formula

DRAINAGE DESIGN: DESIGN FLOOD
FREQUENCY
• The design of drainage structures considers estimates of the
magnitude of floods based on frequency of occurrence
• It differs depending on the type of drainage structure or condition
being considered

DESIGN FLOOD FREQUENCIES (MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS) FOR ROAD

Roadside Ditches Median Ditches
Culverts Curb Drop Inlets
Road & Inlets & Inlets
Classification Design Check Design Check Design Check Design Check
Flood Flood Flood Flood Flood Flood Flood Flood
25 yr 50 yr 25 yr 50 yr 25 yr 50 yr
Expressway 50 yr 100 yr

10 yr 25 yr 10 yr 25 yr 10 yr 25 yr
National Road 25 yr 50 yr

5 yr 10 yr 5 yr 10 yr
Other Roads 20 yr 50 yr 5 yr 10 yr

Design Flood Frequency

DRAINAGE DESIGN: CROSS
SLOPE
• Cross slope or crossfall is the slope of the surface of a pavement
measured at right angles to the horizontal alignment
• The smoother the surface the more efficient it is in shedding water, but
hazardous conditions likely to result from a thin film of water on the
surface should not be overlooked

Surface Type Range in rate of Cross Slope (meter per meter)

High 0.01 – 0.02 (1 - 2%)

Intermediate 0.015 – 0.03 (1.5 – 3%)

Low 0.02 – 0.04 (2 – 4%)

Rate of Cross Slope Range for Surface Types

DRAINAGE DESIGN: STORM
DRAINS
• Road drainage should be designed for a 15 year flood Design
Capacity, with a check capacity of a 25 year flood
• Minimum flow velocity should be at 0.8 m/s at pipe full;
Maximum
velocity to be adopted or piped drainage systems is 5 m/s
• Minimum pipe size adopted should be 910 mm in order to allow the
passage of debris and minimize the risk of blockage
PAVEMENT
DESIGN
• The pavement is defined as that portion of
the road or highway, placed above the
subgrade specifically for the support of and
to provide a running surface for vehicular
traffic
• Pavement design is the process of
determining the thickness and strength of
a pavement laid on a soil foundation
(subgrade) for the purpose of providing an
even non-skid, stable and desirable
surface, permitting efficient, rapid and
safe flow of traffic in accordance with
specified loads
PAVEMENT
DESIGN

Three types of pavement found in the Philippines:

• Flexible (or Asphalt pavement)

• Rigid (or Concrete pavement)
• Unbound, gravel surfaced, unsealed or ‘unpaved’ roads (usually
restricted to local rural access or temporary roads). These are a subset
of flexible pavement
PAVEMENT
DESIGN

Factors that influence the performance of a pavement are:

• Traffic (volume and loading)

• Subgrade support strength, or stiffness
• Water (which affects most pavement materials)
• Pavement material performance
• Quality of construction
EARTHWOR
KS

One of the most frequent disturbances in road operation is slope

failure.

Some causes of slope failure include:

• Decrease in soil strength due to water seepage

• Changes in the balance of gravity due to artificial cut and fills
• Increase in pore pressure due to heavy rainfall
• Increase in gravity acceleration during earthquakes
EARTHWOR
KS

Factors affecting design:

• Height – for high embankments, it is sometimes necessary to provide

lateral support such as retaining structures or other structural measures
• Slopes
• Foundation
• Loading
• Selection of Embankment Materials
• Groundwater
EARTHWOR
KS
All materials in a fill slope must be compacted to a minimum of 98% maximum dry density in layers of
maximum 300 mm thickness.
Nature of Height of Cut/Fill
Filling Material Slope Ratio (H:V) Remarks
Material (m)
Well graded sand (SW)
Gravel with Silt (GM) Less than 5 1.5:1 to 2.0:1
Applied to fills with sufficient
Gravel with Clay (GC) bearing capacity at foundation
Well Graded Gravel (GW) ground, which are not affected by
5 to 15 1.8:1 to 2.5:1 inundation (assumed drained and
Poorly Graded Gravel (GP)
Soil unsaturated)
Poorly Graded Sand (SP) Less than 10 1.8:1 to 2.5:1
Consistency assumed to be medium
Silty Sand (SM) dense (non-cohesive) or stiff
Less than 5 1.5:1 to 2.0:1
Clayey Sand (SC) (cohesive) or better.

Hard clayey soils and clay of alluvium, loam (CL) 5 to 10 2.0:1 to 2.5:1
Soft Clay of high plasticity (CH), Silts (ML, MH) 0 to 5 2.5:1 to 3.0:1

Medium to High Strength Rock, Slightly Less than 10 0.5:1 to 1:1

Weathered to Fresh 10 to 15 0.75:1 to 1.2:1

Very Low to Medium Strength Rock, Extremely to Less than 5 0.75:1 to 1.2:1 Assess all rock slopes in cut in
Rock
Distinctly Weathered accordance with Section 7.3.
5 to 10 1.0:1 to 1.5:1

Residual Soil to Extremely Low Strength Rock, Less than 5 1.0:1 to 1.5:1
Extremely Weathered 5 to 10 1.5:1 to 2:1

Stability of Cut and Fill Slopes for Different Material Types