Digestive system

and
Renal system
Digestive system and Renal system
• Digestive system
• Gastrointestinal tract
- organs involved and their functions
- the digestion process

• Metabolism and enzymes

• Renal system
• Organs involved and their functions
• The excretion process

• Homeostasis
Energy and metabolism
• The ultimate energy source: solar energy (mostly)
• Autotrophs (e.g., plants) trap solar energy (a metabolic reaction) to
produce organic molecules
• For heterotrophs - food (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins & nucleic
acids) is energy source for doing cells’ biological works
• All molecules have stored (potential) energy in the bonds between
their atoms

• What is the alternative besides solar energy?

What do Gorilla eat?
• Gorillas share 98.3% of their DNA with humans.
• Mainly vegetarian diet, feeding on stems, bamboo shoots and fruits. Western lowland
gorillas also have an appetite for termites, ants, and termite larvae

Source: WWF
 Use the cecum (or colon) for
fermentation of plant fiber.
What is in there??
Gorillas absorb some nutrients through
the stomach and small intestine in the
same way carnivores do, but the fiber in
their diet is fermented to produce short-
chain fatty acids (saturated fats) in the
cecum and the colon. These fats are then
used as fuel.
Organs involved in digestion
The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is made up of:
• mouth;
• oesophagus;
• stomach;
• small intestine (duodenum, jejunum and
ileum);
• liver and gall bladder;
• pancreas;
• colon; and
• anus.
Ingestion
Mouth
Mastication: the action of the teeth and
the jaws working together to break food
down.
• Food needs to be chewed and broken
down into pieces small enough to
swallow.
Moving on from the mouth
• Food is masticated and mixed with saliva in
the mouth (digestive process starts).
• Saliva also has an enzyme (amylase) that
begins to break down starches in your food
• The tongue and cheeks help to push the food
into the teeth and also shape the food into a
ball, a.k.a. bolus, before being swallowed.
• The bolus is passed through to the esophagus
Esophagus: peristalsis
• Like a conveyor belt as it transfers the food
bolus from the mouth to the stomach in a
few seconds.
• Circular muscles in the wall of the
esophagus relax in front of the bolus while
circular muscles behind the food contract,
pushing the food bolus onward. This is
called peristalsis
 Digestion
The stomach
• Expandable
• Made up of three different layers of muscles
• Food is mixed with hydrochloric acid (HCl)
which helps to kill any bacteria present.
• Pepsin breaks down protein to form peptides
and amino acids.
• Alcohol is absorbed through the stomach wall
and taken to the liver where it is broken down.
• When the food has been turned into a creamy
mixture known as chyme, the pyloric sphincter
(a ring of muscles) opens, and the chyme is
released gradually into the small intestine.
Small intestine
A tube about 6m long, divided into three sections:
• duodenum
• Jejunum
• ileum

Did you know?

The duodenum is about 25cm long and in the shape of a horseshoe.
Small intestine
• The inner surface of the small intestine is folded into finger-like structures called
villi, which greatly increase the surface area available for absorption

• Digestion which occurs in the wall of the small intestine includes:

Peptides  Amino acids (Protease)

Maltose  Glucose (Maltase)

Sucrose  Glucose + Fructose (Sucrase)

Lactose  Glucose + Galactose (Lactase)

Gall bladder
• Bile is produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder. This contains bile salts
which emulsify fat, which is normally insoluble in water.

• Emulsified fat droplets can then mix with the watery digestive juices, which
contains the enzyme lipase to digest the fat efficiently.

• Fat can take from 3 to 5 hours to be broken down and absorbed.

Pancreas
• The pancreas provides alkaline pancreatic juices
• Contain sodium bicarbonate to neutralize the
HCl from the stomach
• Provide an optimum pH level for the enzymes

• Pancreatic juices also contain digestive enzymes

to break down nutrients:

• Protein  Peptides + Amino acids (Trypsin and

Chymotrypsin)

• Starch / Glycogen  Maltose (Pancreatic amylase)

• Fat  Fatty acids + glycerol (Pancreatic lipase)

Fats
• Fats are constructed from two types of smaller
molecules: glycerol and fatty acids
• Glycerol is a three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl
group attached to each carbon
• an alcohol is an organic compound in
which the hydroxyl functional group 
(-OH) is bound to a carbon atom.
• A fatty acid consists of a carboxyl group attached to
a long carbon skeleton
• In a fat, three fatty acids are joined
to glycerol, creating a triacylglycerol, or triglyceride. 16
Triglyceride

17
Emulsification of Dietary Fats
• Bile salts from the
liver emulsify fats into
small droplets from
a larger fat globule

• Increase lipid surface

area for enzymatic
exposure

• Lipase from the

pancreatic juice
cleave off fatty acids
18
Fate of Dietary Fats
1. Emulsification

2. The emulsion droplets

are where digestion
occurs

3. After digestion,
monoglycerides and
fatty acids associate
with bile salts and
phopholipids to form
micelles. Micelles move
to the surface of the
enterocyte (intestinal
adsorptive cells) where
they can be absorbed.
19
Fate of Dietary Fats
4. Once inside the cell, monoglycerides and fatty
acids are re-synthesized into triglycerides and
it is packaged, along with cholesterol and fat
soluble vitamins, into chylomicrons.

Chylomicrons are lipoproteins, special

particles that are designed for the transport of
lipids in the circulation

5. Chylomicrons are released by exocytosis.

Because they are too large to enter typical
capillaries. Instead they enter lacteals,
(lymphatic capillaries) and eventually flow into
the circulation via lymphatic vessels, which
drain into the general circulation at the large
veins in the chest.
20
 Do you remember?

Lymphatic System Functions

• A subsystem of the circulatory system
• Helps to maintain fluid balance in the body
by collecting excess interstitial fluid and
returning them to blood stream
• Small lymphatic capillaries absorb fats
from digestive tract and transport them to
the bloodstream
• Helps to defend body against infection by
supplying lymphocytes
• From lymphatic capillary to lymphatic
collecting vessels to lymph duct (in
ascending diameter/size)
Colon
• ~1m long and is inhabited by bacteria
• absorb water into the bloodstream.
• Bacteria in the colon ferment dietary fiber and produce fatty acids and gas.
• The watery residue moves along the colon, the feces are formed and stored in the
rectum before being excreted through the anus. Young children gradually learn to
control this action.
• It may take 12-24 hours for the feces to pass through the colon.
Colon
Did you know?
• The gut contains 400 – 500 different species of bacteria and includes potentially pathogenic (e.g.
Clostridia) and potentially beneficial (e.g. Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli) bacteria.
• The microbiome: how might gut bacteria help treat cancer?
Summary of the phases of digestion
• Ingestion – the intake of food into the gastrointestinal tract (GI) tract.

• Digestion – a series of physical and chemical processes which begin in the mouth
but take place mainly in the stomach and the small intestine.

• Absorption – the passage of digested food substances across the GI lining into the
bloodstream and lymphatic system.

• Elimination – the excretion of undigested food substances or waste.

Group work
• Pick one of the topics below:
• Protein functions, metabolism and a related disease.
• Carbohydrate functions, metabolism and a related disease.
• What are cholesterol and lipoproteins? What are their functions?
• What is a ketogenic diet?
• What is metabolic syndrome?
• Artificial Kidney Machine.

• Pick one of the ways to present the topic (15 mins)

• Oral Presentation
• Poster
• Peer teaching

• Upload to CDGTOPL by 9am next Saturday

Essentials of Life

• Maintenance of life requires energy acquired from food

(carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins & minerals)
• Nutrient transformation (Metabolism) is coupled to ATP
production (Energy)
• Metabolism requires activation of biological catalysts
(Enzymes)
Essentials of Life

• Maintenance of life requires energy acquired from food

(carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins & minerals)
• Nutrient transformation (Metabolism) is coupled to ATP
production (Energy)
• Metabolism requires activation of biological catalysts
(Enzymes)
Life and Flow of Energy
• Energy is the ability to do work or bring about
change
• Cells (and organisms) need a constant supply of
energy
• Life on Earth is dependent on solar energy
— Majority of organisms get their energy from organic
nutrients produced by photosynthesizers (algae,
plants, and some bacteria)

— Photosynthesis provides nutrients

Life and Flow of Energy
• Forms of Energy
— Kinetic energy is the energy of motion

— Potential energy is stored energy (the capacity to

accomplish work is not being used at the moment)

— Food is specifically called chemical energy because it

contains energy in the chemical bonds of molecules
Life and Flow of Energy
Life and Law of Thermodynamics
Laws of Thermodynamics
1. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but
it can be changed from one form to
another
• Law of conservation of energy
2. Energy cannot be changed from one form
to another without a loss of usable energy
Life & Energy Transformation

• A leaf cell photosynthesizes

– Use solar energy to form carbohydrates
– Some energy is dissipated as heat
• Moose uses carbohydrates to power its muscles
– Some energy is lost as heat
Life and Law of Thermodynamics
Laws of Thermodynamics
1. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but
it can be changed from one form to
another
• Law of conservation of energy
2. Energy cannot be changed from one form
to another without a loss of usable energy
 Life & Energy Transformation
• Some of the solar energy taken in by the plant and some of
the chemical energy within the food taken in by the moose
become heat
• When heat dissipates into the environment, it is no longer
usable
• Heat that dissipates into the environment cannot be
captured and converted to one of the other forms of
energy
• No process is 100% efficient
• Cells are capable of about >40% efficiency, whereas
automobiles is 20-30% efficient
Life and Law of Thermodynamics
Laws of Thermodynamics
1. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but
it can be changed from one form to
another
• Law of conservation of energy
2. Energy cannot be changed from one form
to another without a loss of usable energy
The Second Law of Thermodynamics

• The second law of thermodynamics

can also be stated in another way
• Every energy transformation makes
the universe less organized and more
disordered
• Entropy refers to the relative amount
of disorganization
The Energy of Life
• Every process (energy transformations) that
occurs in cells always does so in a way that
increases the total entropy of the universe
(heat loss to the environment)
• Cellular processes obviously require an input
of energy from an outside source
The Energy of Life
Essentials of Life

• Maintenance of life requires energy acquired from food

(carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins & minerals)
• Nutrient transformation (Metabolism) is coupled to ATP
production (Energy)
• Metabolism requires activation of biological catalysts
(Enzymes)
Metabolism
• Metabolism is the sum of all the chemical
reactions that occur in a cell
• Catabolism – breaking down molecules
• Anabolism – building molecules

A+B C
(reactants)
(products) (products)
(reactant)
Energy Tranformation & Metabolism
• Minimum resting energy expenditures by an awake alert person
• Average BMR = 1,680 kcal/day
• BMR is influenced by age, gender, physical condition, body weight, and genetic
background

• Calorie (cal): the basic measurement unit of energy in biological systems

• 1cal = heat energy required to increase the temperature of 1g of water by 1oC
• 1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 1,000 calories

• Recommended dietary intake:

http://www.cfs.gov.hk/english/nutrient/nutrient.php
“Based on these studies, it was clear that our bodies do indeed
prefer us to eat during daylight hours – in sync with our natural
circadian rhythm. Most of the studies showed that intentional
circadian rhythm disruption and night eating both caused
changes to many important hormones that regulate appetite,
energy expenditure and glucose regulation (resulting in changes
in the levels of circulating insulin, leptin, cortisol and other
appetite hormones in the blood).”

https://theconversation.com/is-body-weight-affected-by-when-you-eat-heres-what-science
-knows-so-far-143303
Energy Tranformation & Metabolism
Free energy is the amount of energy available

The change in free energy (∆G) =

Free energy content of the product - Free energy
content of the reactants
– Exergonic reactions are ones where energy is
released (∆G is negative)
• Products have less free energy than reactants
• Spontaneous and release energy
Energy Tranformation & Metabolism
Free energy (∆G) is the amount of energy available
– Endergonic reactions require an input of energy
(∆G is positive)
• Products have more free energy than reactants
• Require an input of energy (ATP) to run
ATP as Energy for Cells
Adenine • Universal energy
Ribose currency
• ATP to ADP + P,
energy is released,
and little energy is
wasted
• ATP breakdown can
be coupled to
endergonic reaction
Coupled Reactions in Metabolism
• In coupled reactions:
– The energy released by an exergonic reaction
(release energy) is used to drive an endergonic
reaction (requires energy input)
The Coupled Reaction
Oxidation-Reduction and metabolism
Cellular Respiration
• C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
• Glucose is oxidized (lost hydrogen atoms)
• Oxygen is reduced to form water (gained
hydrogen atoms)
• Energy produced is used to form ATP
• The oxidation of glucose to form ATP is
done in a series of small steps to increase
efficiency
Oxidation-Reduction and metabolism
Photosynthesis
• Energy + 6CO2+6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
• Hydrogen atoms are transferred from water to
carbon dioxide and glucose is formed
• Energy is required and this comes in the form of
light energy from the sun
• Chloroplasts convert solar energy to ATP which is
then used along with hydrogen to reduce carbon
dioxide to glucose
Photosynthesis-Respiration Cycling
The combination of glycolysis, Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), and Oxidative
phosphorylation (electron transport chain) is called cellular respiration.
The combination of glycolysis, Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), and Oxidative
phosphorylation (electron transport chain) is called cellular respiration.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eBl3U-T5Nvk
If photosynthesis and cellular respiration are reverse
equations, then why can’t mitochondria carry on
photosynthesis?
Cellular Respiration

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

Photosynthesis

Although the chemical equations are the reverse of

each other, the chemical reactions of photosynthesis
and cellular respiration are very different.

Mitochondria do not have the appropriate enzymes,

structure, or reactants to carry out photosynthesis.
Entropy is a term used to indicate the level of:

1. Usable energy
2. Enzyme action
3. Disorganization
4. Loss of energy
5. None of the above
Essentials of Life

• Maintenance of life requires energy acquired from food

(carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins & minerals)
• Nutrient transformation (Metabolism) is coupled to ATP
production (Energy)
• Metabolism requires activation of biological catalysts
(Enzymes)
Metabolic Pathway

• Metabolic pathways are a series of linked

reactions.
• These begin with a specific reactant and
produce an end product
Animation: Metabolic Pathway
Enzymes in Metabolic Pathways
Energy of Activation (Ea)
– Energy that must be added to cause
molecules to react with one another
• Need a match to start wood burning
– Enzymes lower the energy of activation
• Do not change the end result of the
reaction
• Increase the reaction rate
Enzymes in Metabolic Pathways
Enzymatic Actions
Enzyme binds substrate to form a complex
E + S  ES  E + P
Enzymatic Action
Enzymatic Actions
Enzymatic Actions
Enzymatic Actions
Enzymatic Actions
Active Sites of an Enzyme
The amount of energy needed to get a chemical
reaction started is known as the:

1. Starter energy
2. Reaction energy
3. Activation energy
4. Product energy
Which of the following statements is incorrect?

1. Exergonic reactions are ones where energy is

released
2. Endergonic reactions require an input of energy
3. Oxidation is the loss of hydrogen atoms
4. Metabolism is the sum of all the chemical
reactions that occur in a cell
5. None of the above
Factors Affecting Enzyme Actions

• Substrate Concentration
• Temperature and pH
• Enzyme Activation
• Enzyme Inhibition
• Enzyme Cofactors (drugs)
Substrate Concentration

• Enzyme activity increases as substrate

concentration increases
• More collisions between substrate and
enzyme
• Maximum rate is achieved when all active
sites of an enzyme are filled continuously
with substrate

73
Temperature
– Enzyme activity increases as
temperature rises
– Higher temperatures cause more
effective collisions between
enzymes and substrates
– Enzyme may denature at high
temperatures
• Loss of structure and function
74
Effects of Temperature on Enzyme Functions

75
pH

• Each enzyme has an optimal pH

• Enzyme structure is pH dependent
• Extremes of pH can denature an enzyme by altering its
structure 76
Enzyme Activation

• Cell regulates metabolism by regulating which

enzymes are active
• Genes producing enzymes can be turned on
or off to regulate enzyme concentration
• Enzyme can be modified by adding or
removing phosphates – changes shape 77
Enzyme Inhibition

• Occurs when enzyme cannot bind its substrate

• Activity of almost every cell enzyme is regulated by
feedback inhibition 78
Allosteric Inhibition
In complex type of inhibition, product binds to a
site other than the active site, which changes the
shape of the active site

79
Drugs Inhibiting Enzyme Function

• Poisons are often enzyme inhibitors

• Cyanide inhibits an essential

mitochondrial enzyme

• Penicillin blocks the active site on a

bacterial enzyme

80
The Urinary System

Adrenal glands
Four Main Functions of Kidneys
1. Excretion of Metabolic Wastes
Urea: primary nitrogenous end-product of metabolism
2. Maintenance of Water-Salt Balance
Blood volume and pressure are related to NaCl
& other ions (K+, HCO3-, Ca2+) are regulated
3. Maintenance of Acid-Base Balance
Keep blood pH around 7.4
Excretion of H+ & re-absorption of HCO3-
4. Secretion of Hormones
Renin  Aldosterone (involved in Na+ re-absorption)
Erythropoietin  stimulates red blood cell production
Helps activate Vit. D to promote calcium absorption
Urinary Organs: Kidneys

• Covered by renal capsule

• tough fibrous connective
tissue

• Concave side has a depression

called hilum (hilus) where

 Renal artery enters

 Renal vein and ureter exit renal
capsule
Urinary Organs: Kidney in Sections
Regions of a Nephron
Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule
 Cuplike structure
 Podocytes wrap around the
capillaries of the glomerulus
 Form slits for passage of small
molecules  ultrafiltrate

Glomerulus Podocytes
 Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
Cuboidal epithelial cells with
microvilli  Increased surface area
for absorption

Loop of Henle
U-shaped tube with simple
squamous epithelium

Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)

Lack microvilli but numerous
mitochondria  Designed for
tubular excretion

Collecting Ducts
Several nephrons connect to one
collecting duct

Loop of Henle
Regions of a Nephron

Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)

Cuboidal epithelial cells with microvilli  Increased surface area for absorption

Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)

Lack microvilli but numerous mitochondria  Designed for tubular excretion
Mechanisms of Urine Fomation:
• Glomerular filtration of water & solutes from the blood

• Tubular re-absorption of water & conserved molecules back into the blood

• Tubular secretion of ions & other waste products from surrounding

capillaries into the distal tubule
Glomerulus Filtration

Blood (Glomerular) pressure forces water and

small molecules e.g., nitrogenous wastes,
nutrients, salts (ions) into the Bowman’s
capsule  filtrate
Glomerlus Filtration
Tubular Reabsorption
Na+ re-absorbed by active transport
Water absorbed by osmosis

Carrier proteins are required for actively re-

absorption
e.g., glucose

There is a limited number of carrier

proteins
Excess glucose ends up being excreted
as in diabetes
Tubular Secretion

• Usually require active transport

• Toxic wastes excreted by tubular secretion
bypass tubular re-absorption
• E.g., H+, K+, creatinine and drugs
Nephron Function
The Renal System in homeostasis
Maintenance of body’s internal conditions
Stable, relatively constant
• Body temperature
• Number of cells in body organs
• Blood composition
• Blood glucose level
• Blood pressure
• Acidity/Alkalinity of tissue fluids
Which of the above parameters are maintained
by the renal system?
• Carry out the major regulatory and
excretory functions in the human
body

• Only comprise 20-30% of the nephrons in the

human kidney
• concentrate or dilute the urine
 Reabsorption of Salts and Water

• Kidneys maintain the water-salt balance of the

blood
• Maintain blood volume and blood pressure
• Most of the water and salt (NaCl) present in the
filtrate is re-absorbed across the wall of the
proximal convoluted tubule and the collecting
duct.
 Reabsorption of Water
• Ascending limb of the loop is
impermeable to water  Salt diffuses
out of lower & actively transports out of
upper parts

• Urea contributes to high solute

concentration in medulla creates osmotic
gradient  Water leaves descending
limb of the loop

Concentrate urine by countercurrent

mechanism!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cYyJF_aSC6o
Ureters & Bladder
Ureters
• Conduct urine from kidney to
bladder by peristalsis
• 3 layers
• inner mucosa
• Smooth muscle
• Outer connective tissue

Bladder
• Stores urine
• Expandable bladder wall
• Sphincter muscles control the
release of urine into the urethra
Urethra

• Small tube that leads from the

urinary bladder to an external
opening
• Longer in males
• Also transports semen in male
The Micturition Reflex

Regulated by:
1. The autonomic nervous system
2. The motor nervous system

The normal bladder capacity

is 300-400 ml which is the
amount of urine passed each
time.

Involuntary

Voluntary
The Micturition Reflex
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
• Produced by the posterior pituitary gland
• In the absence of ADH, collecting duct is impermeable to water
Water leaks from lower collecting duct
• Concentrated urine is produced
Diuretics
•Diuretics increase production of urine

•Alcohol
Inhibits ADH secretion
Dehydration causes hangover

•Caffeine
Increases glomerular filtration rate
Decreases tubular reabsorption of sodium

•Diuretic drugs
Many inhibit active transport of sodium at loop of the nephron
or the distal convoluted tubule
Acid-Base Balance is important

• Normal pH for most body fluids is 7.4

• Alkalosis: > 7.4
• Acidosis: < 7.4

 Acid-Base buffer system

 Respiratory Center
 The Kidneys
Acid-Base Buffer Systems
• Buffer – chemical or combination of chemicals
Can take up excess H+ or OH-
Prevents large changes in pH

• When H+ added to blood the following occurs

H+ + HCO3-  H2CO3

• When OH- added to blood the following occurs

OH- + H2CO3  HCO3- + H2O

Acid-Base Balance: Respiratory Center

• Increasing breathing rate to remove CO2
• Forces reaction to the right  Removes hydrogen ions
H+ + HCO3- ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H2O + CO2
Acid-Base Balance: The Kidneys
• Slower acting but powerful
• Reabsorbs bicarbonate ions as needed
• Excretes hydrogen ions as needed
• Ammonia can absorb hydrogen ions
Group work
• Pick one of the topics below:
• Protein functions, metabolism and a related disease.
• Carbohydrate functions, metabolism and a related disease.
• What are cholesterol and lipoproteins? What are their functions?
• What is a ketogenic diet?
• What is metabolic syndrome?
• Artificial Kidney Machine.

• Pick one of the ways to present the topic (15 mins)

• Oral Presentation
• Poster
• Peer teaching

• Upload to CDGTOPL by 9am next Saturday