MSE-3107

Physical Metallurgy
By

Azmery Akter
Lecturer
Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
Khulna University of Engineering & Technology(KUET)
Khulna-9203
 Heat Treatment
• Heating a material to a temperature holding it at
that temperature for a period of time followed by
cooling at a specified rate is called heat treatment.

Heat treatment cycle or stage

 Purpose of Heat Treatment
⮚ IMPROVED MACHINABILITY
⮚ TO RELIEVE INTERNAL STRESSES

⮚ IMPROVE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES -DUCTILITY, STRENGTH, HADNESS,

TOUGHNESS ETC

⮚ CHANGE IN GRAIN SIZE.

⮚ INCREASE RESISTANCE TO HEAT AND CORROSION

⮚ MODIFY ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

⮚ CHANGE THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

⮚ REMOVE GASES
Heat Treatments
Holding Temperature for Different Heat
Treatment
Holding Temperature for Different Heat
Treatment
Cooling Rate for Different Heat Treatment
Annealing
Annealing / Full Annealing
Spheroidization Annealing
6 to 7 hours
Stress Relief Annealing
 Process Annealing/ Recrystallization

1.RECOVERY: HERE THE STRESSES IN THE ELONGATED GRAINS ARE

RELIEVED.
2.RECRYSTALIZATION: HERE THE NEW CRYSTALS GROW FROM THE OLD
ELONGATED CRYSTALS. HARDNESS DECREASES, TENSILE STRENTH ALSO
REDUCES.
3.GRAIN GROWTH: HERE THE NEWLY FORMED GRAINS GROW IN THE
SIZE. HARDNESS COMES TO NORMAL VALUE AND STEEL GETS SOFT.
Recrystallization temp. = 0.5/0.6Tm
Normalizing
Short period of time
Hardening
Body Center Tetragonal Unit Cell of Martensite
Hardening
Mechanism of Heat Removal During Quenching
 Hardenability

• ABILITY OF STEEL TO GET HARDENED BY FORMING 100%

MARTENSITIC STRUCTURE EVEN AT A SLOWER COOLING
RATE.

• FOR PLAIN CARBON STEELS,AS PERCENTAGE OF CARBON

INCREASES,TTT DIAGRAM SHIFTS IN THE RIGHTWARDS
DIRECTION,THEREBY CRITICAL RATE OF COOLING
BECOMES SLOWER AND HARDENABILITY OF STEEL
INCREASES.

• IF % OF CARBON DECREASES , THEN TTT DIAGRAM SHIFTS

IN THE LEFTWARDS THEREBY DECREASING
HARDENABILITY OF STEEL.
As % of alloying elements in the steel increases, the
hardenability also goes on increasing.
 Hardenability Measurement
• JOMINY END QUENCH TEST IS USED TO MEASURE HARDENABILITY
OF STEEL.
• HERE STANDARD JOMNY SPECIMEN IS PREPARED AND END OF THE
STEEL SPECIMEN IS QUENCHED WITH WATER JET.
• AFTER THIS THE POINTS ARE MARKED FROM QUENCHED END AT AN
INTERVAL OF 1.6 MM.
• HARDNESS IS MEASURED FROM THE END AT THESE MARKED
POINTS.
• CURVE IS PLOTTED BETWEEN HARDNESS Vs DISTANCE FROM
QUENCHED END CALLED AS “HARDENABILITY CURVE”.
• AT A POINT THE CURVE RAPIDLY DROPS DOWN INDICATING THE
SECTION IN THE STEEL SPECIMEN WITH 50% MARTENSITE AND 50%
PEARLITE. THE DIATANCE OF THIS SECTION FROM THE END IS
MEASURED.THIS IS “JOMINY DISTANCE”. EXPRESSED IN mm OR
POINTS. LESS IS DISTANCE, LESS IS HARDENABILTY & VICE VERSA.
Jominy Test For Hardenability
Water And Oil Quenching
Air Cooling During Hardening For High Alloy Steels
Tempering
Tempering

1 to 2 hours

Air, oil or salt bath

Martensite Ferrite (matrix) + Epsilon carbide Fe2.4C and Cementite
Tempering
Variation of Mechanical Properties of Steel with
Tempering Temperature
Martempering
Martempering
Austempering
Austempering
Surface Hardening/ Case Hardening
Carburizing
Carburizing
Carburized Surface
Carburizing Parameters
Applications
Pack Carburizing
Gas Carburizing
Liquid Carburizing
Nitriding of Steel
Advantages of Nitriding
Gas Nitriding
Cyaniding
Carbonitriding
Thermal Hardening
Flame Hardening
Induction Hardening
 Laser Hardening
Laser hardening is a heat treatment process or surface hardening process in which a
laser beam is used to heat the surface of a metal part and then let it quickly cool
down in surrounding air. This process is used exclusively on ferrous materials
suitable for hardening, including steels and cast iron with a carbon content of more
than 0.2 percent.

During laser hardening, also known as surface layer hardening, the energy from the
laser beam is applied directly to the component surface. The surface layer is heated
up to the hardening temperature (>1000°C) in a reduced area within a very short
period of time.

• One advantage of using a laser is that the amount of heat input is comparatively
low, so heat is transmitted into the base material relatively quickly. Self-
quenching is produced as a martensitic structure is formed and the hardening
layer is 'cooled.'
• A very tough, fine-grained structure is created due to the high heat-up rate
during laser hardening. The risk of cracks forming is very low due to self-
quenching. The precisely focused energy ensures that the component is subject
to a comparatively low impact from heat, bringing a great advantage in minimum
quench distortion.
• Laser hardening requires less refinishing work and has the ability to
process irregular, three-dimensional workpieces. Laser hardening
increases hardness and wear resistance, which leads to reduction of
abrasive wear.

THE ADVANTAGES OF LASER HARDENING:

• Precise energy input with minimum heat effect
• Low distortion, so little to no finishing work required
• Less hardness stress
• Low risk of cracking
• No media required for quenching
 Electron Beam Hardening
• Electron beam hardening is typically used to harden a very thin surface
layer of an object by raising it to a specific temperature and then
allowing it to cool rapidly.
• It is able to harden only the outermost layer of a material, leaving the
core of the material with its original mechanical and chemical properties.
Thicknesses of less than 0.004 inch (0.1 mm) can be hardened using the
electron beam hardening process.
• The thin surface layers of material that are affected by electron beam
hardening are typically self-quenched. This means the ratio of the mass
affected by electron beam hardening and the unaffected mass is small
enough that the unaffected mass can cause the surface to cool fast
enough to harden it.
• This treatment must be carried out in a vacuum and does not
cause distortion on hardening. Consequently, both locally
restricted hardening and surface layer hardening in precision parts is
possible.
Process:
Electron beam hardening involves exciting and emitting electrons
from an electrode typically made of a tungsten or a tungsten alloy.
To do this, thousands of volts are moved through the filament that
then begins emitting electrons. During the electron beam hardening
process, the emitted electrons are organized and focused using
magnetic fields. This cathode is directly (band cathode) or indirectly
(bolt cathode) heated to very high temperatures (>2500 °C, or
4530 °F). This focusing gives the electron beam hardening process
the energy density required to heat the material on which the work
is being performed. The beam also needs to be directed across the
part while the electron beam hardening process is being carried out,
and this is done through a combination of moving the electron beam
gun and more magnetic fields.

To avoid contamination of both the filament and the material

undergoing the electron beam hardening process, all of the work
being performed is done in a vacuum.
 Diffusion Coating
• Diffusion coating is a process in which metal components that will be
subjected to high temperature conditions and highly corrosive
environments are coated with a non-corrosive material. The process is
normally done at elevated temperatures in a controlled chamber.

• The most widely used coatings are chromium, aluminum or silicon

material. Substrate materials usually coated include cobalt and nickel-
based super alloys, steels (including carbon, alloy and stainless steels)
and refractory metals, among other alloys. As a result, the base metal
develops extreme resistance to corrosion, oxidation and erosion in its
severe working conditions. This makes the process highly reliable,
enhancing the manufacture of critical components. Diffusion coating is
normally used to process gas turbine engine components (vanes, blades
and cases), pump impellers, gate valves and power generation components.

Diffusion coating is also called surface alloying or an alloy coating.

• Diffusion coating can be done using three processes:
Solid state diffusion
Liquid state diffusion
Chemical vapor diffusion

• Solid state diffusion is used with nickel, titanium and iron, among other
metals, and the vapor pressure of the coating metal must be lower than the
base metal. The process is normally performed in a hermetically sealed
container with the base metal covered with the powdered coating material.
The container is then heated in a vacuum, at a temperature of 1000°C
1500°C (1800°F to 2700°F). The coating metal melts to cover the entire
surface of the base metal. This process is also referred to as pack
cementation.
• Zinc, chrome and copper are normally coated through liquid
diffusion. Liquid diffusion is performed in tank furnaces in which the
diffusing metal interacts with the base metal's surface at 800°C to
1300°C (1400°F to 2300°F). Complex diffusion coating can be
achieved through this process, such as chrome calorization as well as
chrome-nickel plating.

• In chemical gas diffusion or out-of-contact gas phase diffusion, the

coating material is heated into a gaseous form at a distance from the
surface being saturated. The gaseous chemical compounds of the
coating element react with the basic metal, resulting in diffusion of
the metal. This gaseous phase consists of halides to ensure
sublimation of the diffusing metal on the base metal's surface. The
process is usually performed in specially designed furnaces at a
temperature of 700°C to 1000°C (1300°F to 1800°F).
 Metal Cladding
• Metal cladding is a type of protective coating, where the protective
material such as metal powder or foil is bonded to a substrate by
applying heat and/or pressure. On the other hand metal cladding is a
method of protecting one metal (or composite) by forming a layer of
a second metal to its surface by using techniques such as diffusion,
deformation and lasers.
• The study of metal cladding is significant because this method of
corrosion protection and wear protection is generally very reliable
and cost-effective. In addition, the process parameters can be
optimized for different metals and composites in various critical
applications.