CHAPTER 2 NATURE AND EFFECTS

OF ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS
 Learning Outcome
3.1 Air pollutants- Inorganic Gases
3.2 Air pollutant – Particulate Matter
3.3 Volatile Organic Compound
3.4 Toxic and Radioactive Metals
3.5 Pesticides and Pesticides Residues
3.6 Persistent Toxic Substances
3.7 Physical and Biological Toxic Agents

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ENVIRONMENTAL
TOXICANTS

Air pollutants Air pollutants Volatile Toxic and

–Inorganic – Particulate Organic Radioactive
Gases Matter compound Metal

Pesticides and Persistent Biological and

Pesticide Toxic Physical Toxic
Residue Substances Agent

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 Inorganic Gases

• Troposphere : Inorganic Gases Percentage

(%)
Nitrogen (N2) 78.1
Oxygen (O2) 20.9
CO2, Argon, H2O 1

• Detected over 200 hazardous air pollutant in ambient air Types of inorganic Gases
• Consider as toxic air. Sulphur dioxide (SOx)
• Types of inorganic Gases Nitrogen Oxide (NOx)
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Particulate matter
• Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), (1994) – Smoke Haze is Particulate Matter (PM10) must comply to Air
Pollutant Index (API) standard for healthy air.
 SOx
1

• Highly reactive gases • Oxidation of SO2 => acid

• Several acute air pollutant 2SO2 + O2 => 2SO3
• Source of pollutant SO3 + H2O => H2SO4 (hydrate)
• Characteristics:
• Fossil fuel combustion at
• Non-flammable, colourless,
electrical power plant irritating, liquefied compressed
• Paper & pulp manufacturing gas
• Industrial processes (extracting • Pungent, acidic, suffocating odor
metal from ore) • Can cause severe chemical
• Train/ship/diesel trucks burn if inhale /skin contact at
• Fertilizer, food processing high dose
(by-product from industrial
activities)
Sulphur containing fuel (coal, oil) + burn => release SO2
Sulphur cycle
 SOx
• Inhalation as major route of exposure
• Acute : life threatening for asthmatic children/ shortness of breath
• Chronic : respiratory illness, cardiovascular diseases
• Plant: via stomata, causing necrotic lesions on leaf surface but some plant more
susceptible to SO injury.
• Acid Rain
• Rain that falls on ground as wet deposition may contain acidic component (H 2SO4) after oxidised
of SO2 at troposphere.
• Acidic of soil : root severely damage, high potential leach nutrient (Ca, Na); soil microbe decaying
leaves.
• Acidic of aquatic system: reproductive function endanger, low Ca in female fish, low production
egg
• Corrosive effect on
• limestone & marble building (made from CaCO3 , when exposed to H2SO4 its will dissolve CaCO3
• Copper, metal’s alloy
 NOx
2

• Highly reactive gases

• Related to photochemical smog reaction
• Natural process in air, soil, water, produce 2 oxides
• Atmospheric nitrogen fixation, N in the air separate by lightening into N2, can
react to O2 in the air to form NOx
• Biological nitrogen fixation: N2 => NH3 => NOx (action by algae in water &
bacteria in soil/plant.
• Anthropogenic source of Nox
• Automobile exhaust fume
• Emission from electric utilities/ industrial process
Nitrogen fixation cycle
 NOx
• Above room temperature – release pungent odor
• Non-flammable, but accelerate burning of combustible material
• Strong oxidizing agent, readily react with H2O vapour in the air to form
corrosive nitric acid (HNO3)
• Major acidic constituents of acid rain & precursor certain components formed
in Particulate Matter (PM)
• Effect:
• Strong respiratory irritant
• HNO on acid rain form NO in corrosive to building material at high concentration.
• Cause haze formation - reduce visibility
• Irritate & burn skin, eye, nose, throat, lung
• Inhalation (children) reduce lung ability to defend against bacteria & virus (increase
respiratory infection)
 CO
3
• Odorless, colourless, lethal gas
• High toxic to human at high concentration
• Binding affinity to metalloprotein haemoglobin (HB) to form HB-CO
• HB-CO cause incapable carrying O to cell in other body tissues
• Source:
• Incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuel (fossil fuel/coal/natural gas/petroleum-
rich carbon), where, O2 supply not sufficient
• Automobile exhaust (garage/roadway)
• Flammable, non-irritating gas soluble in ethanol/ benzene in water
• Common asphyxiate due to HB-CO, cause headaches, dizzy, tiredness
• Not harmful to plant cause rapidly oxidised CO + O 2 => CO2 (can be use photosynthesis)
 Particulate Matter
• Is a small discrete mass of solid/ liquid matter that
dispersed in gas/liquid emissions and considered as
atmospheric pollutant
• Industrial hygiene context:
“small solid material, liquid droplet or
microbiological organism that is less than 100
micrometres (µm)”
• Wide range of size and measures by Aerodynamic
equivalent Diameter (PM measure by their
diameter)
• Size related to inhalation risk & ability of particles
to penetrate the respiratory tract
 Types of PM Characteristics Example
Dust General Produced by mechanical action on larger lead dust Quartz dust
Tiny solid particle produced by decomposition

Fibre Long thin tendrils Asbestos, ceramic fibre

Biological Organic dust from plant/animal Wood dust

Cotton dust

Mist General Liquid droplet. Over-sprayed paint

Define as aerosol
Created by mechanical action breaking liquid into small
particles

Fog Liquid Droplet cause by re-condensation of vapour Boiling acid in chemical reaction

Fume Formed by evaporation & rapid condensation of metal Welding, cutting work
vapour into very small particles

Biological Living things that may cause allergic, infection Bacteria, Virus, spore
agent

Smokes Incomplete combustion of organic materials Diesel exhaust

Create by vaporisation of organic material followed by Coal powdered furnace
condensation. Human tissue by laser surgery
• PM is hazard when
suspended in air and
forming aerosol which can
be inhaled
• Aerosol : suspended of fine
solid particles/ liquid
droplet/ mixture of gas
• Size of PM:
PM Diameter Characteristics
particles

PM10 > 10 µm Non- inhalable coarse particles

PM2.5 - 10 2.5 – 10 µm Inhalable coarse particles
PM0.1-2.5 0.1 – 2.5 µm Fine particles & inhalable

PM0.1 0.1 µm Ultrafine/nano particles

Effect of PM
• Effect of PM
• Respiratory Tract
• Cardiovascular system
• Environment
• Leaves of plants can be coated with PM that falls onto their surface to block gas-
exchange function and thereby to reduce their exposure to sunlight for photosynthesis.
• Acidic or alkaline materials included in PM cause direct damage to leaf surface.
• Rhizosphere (surrounding plant roots) route for uptake of nutrient by plants. Toxic metals
in PM deposited onto the soil, inhibit the process in soil that make nutrient available for
plant.
• Acid precipitation cause erosion and structure material (surface paint). Cause increasing
cleaning and maintenance costs.
• Acid PM settle onto lake, rivers, can acidify the water to pH level less suitable for aquatic
life. Same as forest and crop

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Deposition of PM in Human Body
• Only particles less than 100 µm in diameter (PM2.5 – 10 ; PM0.1-2.5 PM0.1)
have potential to remain suspended/ deposited in the air for long
period to form hazardous aerosol

Inhalable Thoracic Respirable

Fraction fraction fraction
• Hazardous • Hazardous • Hazardous
substance when material
able deposited in when
deposited in bronchi deposited in
respiratory (airway) or in gas exchange
tract gas exchange region of the
• nose, throat, (alveolar) lungs, alveoli
airway, deep region
lung
 Particulate Size Influence Deposition of PM

• Inhalable Fraction

• Thoracic Fraction

• Respirable Fraction
 Particulate Matter
• Anatomical response,
• the mucous in bronchial lining helps alleviate this by
trapping the dust, thus, preventing the particles from
entering our lungs.
• However, mucous can get saturated and toxic
particles may be inhalable
• Pneumoconiosis – disease to describe the harm done by
inhalation of solids as the result of occupational exposure.
• Symptoms :
• shortness of breath, chest pain, fatigue, cyanosis
(shortage of Oxygen)
• Accompanying damage to lung circulatory system
cause strain on right side of heart which responsible
for pumping blood to the lung.
• Chemical transfer from particles in lung absorb into
blood stream & then travel to other organ, will
causing damage
Example of PM Characteristics Source

Silica Crystalline silica Construction material contain silica (brick,

concrete, mineral deposits, cement)

Asbestos Curly fibre & Thermal insulation, fire proofing, electrical

needle0like fibres insulation, brake lining

Metal Metal fume/ dust Grinding, machining, sanding

Organic Particle Nature fibre Sawdust, wheat flour protein

 VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUND (VOC)

• VOC refer to huge group of diverse hydrocarbon/ organic

solid or liquid substances that readily evaporate and remain
in the air as gases at ambient temperature.
• Fully halogenated – high vapour pressure with boiling point
between 50℃ to 250℃.
• Wide variety of
• biological compound from plants,
• synthetic chemical from industrial processes,
• ingredient of consumer product found in home,
• ingredient of protective coatings and
• paint from building or structure material

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VOLATILE ORGANIC
COMPOUND (VOC)

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VOLATILE ORGANIC
COMPOUND (VOC)
• VOC is precursors of ozone and secondary PM.
• Consume product such as automotive cleaner, spot removers
and degreasing fluids, many VOC can be found in groundwater.
• Contamination of groundwater with VOCs can be traced to
source such as industrial facilities, home septic tanks,
municipal landfills and hazardous waste dump.
• When fuel (gasoline) spilled on to ground or leak from
underground storage tank.
• VOCs readily evaporate into indoor air when contaminated
water is used for drinking or during cooking, especially when
water is heated.

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Toxic and Radioactive Metal
• Not all metal are toxic to human, wildlife or
ecosystem as long as they are not excessively
accumulated in body
• Lead (Pb) • Aluminium (Al)
• Mercury (Hg) • Arsenic (Ar)
• Cadmium (Cd) • Beryllium (Be)

Secondary /
Heavy Pseudo
Metal Heavy
Metal

Toxic Trace Radioactive

Metal Metal

• Chromium (Cr) • Radium

• Nickle (Ni) • Radon
• Copper (Co)

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Pesticides and Pesticide Residues
• Pesticides are active ingredients of products used to
prevent, destroy, repel, mitigate or control variety of
nuisances (insect, weed, fungi, bacteria, viruses, ticks,
fleas and rodents or other unwanted small animals).
• Active ingredient are synthetic chemicals while many
are highly toxic, carcinogenic and capable of
disrupting endocrine system in human and animal.
• Pesticides residues refer to those applied pesticide
particles remaining in environment (food or food
crop) or worker.

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 Pesticides and Pesticide Residues
• Many pesticides used today can be treated not only as soil but also as water
pollutants.
• Frequently mobilized and distribute across environmental compartment via various
biological and chemical processes.
• Many pesticides use on or for agricultural commodities in the form of pellet,
powder, dust and spray solution.
• By convention, these pesticides residues are perceived more as soil or land-borne
than as water-borne pollutant due to their major uses or disposal sites being on
land or soil properties (farmland, landfill)
• Otherwise, more persistent of pesticides can be found at substantially levels in
ground water, estuaries, river or water bodies as through leaching and runoff.
• Pesticides particularly soil fumigant can detected in the air if they persistent (and
volatile) enough to evaporate off the soil, land properties or water

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Classification of Pesticides
• Pesticides are classified according to the specific
types of pest that they each control or destroy

Insecticides Rodenticides Herbicides Fungicides

Nematocides Miticides Tickicides Bacteriacides

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Types of Pesticides based on
Chemical Group

Organochlorine Organophosphate Major Carbamate

Pesticides Pesticides Pesticides

Phenoxy
Triazine Pesticides
Pesticides

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 Organochlorine Pesticides -
• Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (C14H9CI5 )- acronym DDT
• Widely known and the most notorious chemical in modern pesticides history.
• Apply in United States for insect control between 1940 to 1970.
• Effectively against flies and mosquitoes. It work by binding to sodium
channel protein in insect’s nerve cell, thereby locking the channel in the
open state to allow prolong influx of sodium ion. Cause ion leakage and
nerve to fire repeatedly the electrical impulses expressed as muscle tremors
and results insect 'death.
• Chemical stability and tendency accumulate in animals and environment
cause more severe chronic effect (nervous system in human, tremors and
seizures.
• DDT classified as possible human carcinogens.

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 Persistent Toxic Substances (PTS)

• PTS mean any toxic material that has an alarming half

life in an environmental medium (air, water, sediment,
soil, food).
• Half life (t1/2) refer to time (t) required for the quantity
or concentration of a substance in a medium to
diminish to half of its original value and thereby is
high medium-specific

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 Persistent Toxic Substances (PTS)
• Pollutant’s persistence in an environmental medium is a
measure or as reflection or susceptibility to degradation or
loss in that medium.
• Bioaccumulation of PTS in the environment, make it
actually available for environmental exposure.
• Persistence is a component more crucial than toxicity in
assessing health risk of an environmental toxicant.
• Two types of PTS
• Chemical persistence
• Environmental persistence

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Persistent Toxic Substances (PTS)
• Chemical Persistence:
• Substance’s ability to remain unchanged both in its natural
physiochemical state and in its composition over time.
• Environmental Persistence:
• Constant quantity of substance in the environmental
medium of concern.
• pose no threat of environmental persistence if kept inside a
durable, well-sealed, well-insulated container.
• Refer to its degradation half-life.
• Ex: a substance might persistent when its half-life in air is
more than 2 days, or when its half life in water or soil exceed
180days.

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Persistent Toxic Substances (PTS)
• Example of PTS

Perfluorooctane Polybrominated Polybrominated

Sulfonate Biphenyls Diphenyl Ethers

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Biological Toxic Agents
• Biological toxic agents refer to all living organisms that
cause harm, not only the natural toxin that they
produce.
• Some microbes can produce fatal toxins in human or
others organism, they or some others can be even
more toxic on their own.
• Overgrowth of certain types of bacteria (Lactobacillus)
in body tissues could lead to the development of
cancer or other serious disorders (stomach ulcers) at
that very site, potentially signifying the toxic
mechanism of direct (bacterial) damage.
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Biological Toxic Agents
• Infection vs Infectious Disease
• Infection
• Invasion and colonization by a microbial agent in the host
organism
• when a pathogen enters a host’s body to start colonizing.
• Infectious Disease
• Occur when the colonization microbial agent becomes aggressive
• Microbe start to multiply aggressively to the level that certain
symptoms manifest.
• Body have high capacity to fight off microbial invasion, disease
results only when these protective mechanism are compromised.

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Biological Toxic Agents

Pathogenic microbial
agent (Pathogenic Toxins from Toxins from fishes
Bacteria/Virus/Fungi/ microorganism and plants
Parasites)

Venoms from Venoms from reptiles

anthropods and amphibians

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Biological Toxic Agents
(A). Pathogenic Microbial agents
• Bacteria : gram-positive or gram-negative
• Virus
• Fungi : eukaryotic organism that live in air, soil, water or
on plants or moist surface.
• Parasite: organism that live on or inside another
organism with the potential to harm the host organism
due to unable producing energy or food on their own.
(protozoa/helminthes)

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Biological Toxic Agents
(B).Toxins from Microorganisms
• Malaria Toxin, a glycolipid produced by Protozoan able
stimulating the production of tumor necrosis factor
which potential cause death of tumor cells and
systemic inflammation.
• Toxin produced by virus as by-product can accumulate
in the host cell during the coarse of virus replication.
• Toxins from fungi tend to colonizing crops which found
in mushrooms. Poisoning from ingestion of toxin in
mushroom cause gastrointestinal discomfort to death.

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Biological Toxic Agents
(C). Toxins from Fishes and Plants
• Poisoning from consumption of poisonous fishes/plant
• Toxins from fishes due algae-borne toxins. Accumulation
algae in big coral reef fish (grouper, wrasse).The toxin
accumulate in skin, head, viscera and roe of fish. Can not
destroy by cooking.
• Many different kinds of substances found in plants that able
causing GI disturbance.
• Plants (bean, cereal grain, seeds, nut) with high concentration
of sugar-binding protein called lectin may harmful if consume
excessively in undercooked from. Effect GI.

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Biological Toxic Agents
(D). Venoms from arthropods
• Arthropods (beetles, mosquitoes, ticks, fire ants, bee)
• After arthropods (female mosquitoes) an infected person,
its will inject its saliva containing malaria parasite for
multiplication in body’s liver and infect red blood cell.
• Most people have only localized reaction (local and
nonallergic reaction): short-term redness, tenderness,
itching.
• Systemic allergic reaction to a wasp or bee sting result
anaphylactic shock within a minutes.

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Biological Toxic Agents
• Venoms from reptiles and amphibians
• Cold blooded animals (snakes, turtles, crocodiles
and alligators)
• Cobra, mambras, kraits, copperheads
• Modified saliva secreted via their mostly sharp,
enlarged, as well as hollow fangs.
• Salivary venoms typically contained toxic enzyme.

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Physical Toxic Agents
• Harmful agents not chemical or biological in nature treated as
physical.
• Heat, noise, non-ionizing radiation
• Potential cause carcinogenic, mutagenic, tetratogenic to
human.
• Traffic congestion cause slower vehicular movements and
thereby longer trip times. Lead more emission of air pollutant
into atmosphere and contributor to poor health condition.
• Noise pollution has directly impact on human health. This
environmental pollution lower people sensitivity to sounds
leading to the premature aging of their auditory system.

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