Electrical Theory

Howard W Penrose, Ph.D., CMRP

Instructor

(c)2005 Penrose
Overview of Electrical Theory

• Atomic Structure and Electron Movement

• Conductors, Semi-Conductors, Insulators
• Basic Electricity: Current, Voltage and
Resistance
• Electrical and Magnetic Fields
• Alternating Current Electricity: L, C, XL, XC, Z

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Atomic Structure and
Electron Movement

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Classic Atom

+ N -

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 Electron Movement
Photon

Photon
+ N -

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Conductors, Semi-
Conductors and
Insulators

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 Conductors
• Free Electrons (e)
• Easily Directed
- - - - - -
- - - - - - - -
• Usually metals - - - +
- - - - - -
– Copper - - - - - - - -

– Aluminum
– Gold
– Platinum

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 Semi-Conductors
+
• Dielectrics
• 4 Valence Electrons
• Polarize with Some
Electron Flow due to
Electrical Fields
-

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 Insulators
+
• No Free Electrons
• No Current Flow with
Field

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 Basic Electricity:
Current, Voltage and
Resistance

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 Current (Amperage - I)
Current is the flow of
electricity, much like
the flow of water in a
pipe. It is measured in
Amperage as opposed
to gallons per minute of
water.

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 Current

Electron! Electron!

• 1 Amp = 6.28 x 1018 electrons per second

• 1 Amp = 1 Coulomb per second
• Electron charge = 1.60219 x 10-19 Coulombs
• Flows Negative Charge to Positive Charge
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 Voltage (Volts - V or E)
Voltage is the electrical
pressure in the system,
much like water pressure.
Electrical pressure is
measured in Volts as
opposed to Pounds per
Square Inch. (ie: 110V like
water from a tap, 4160 like
a fire hose)

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 Resistance (Ohms - R or Ω)

Resistance is simply the

restriction of current
flow in a circuit.
Smaller wire
(conductors) and poor
conductors have higher
resistance.

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 Resistance

e e
e e e
e e e e ee
e e

Fewer Collisions = Less Heat!

Many Collisions = Heat!

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 Ohm’s Law
Current, Voltage, and Resistance relate as
follow:

I=E/R

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 Electrical and
Magnetic Fields

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 Magnetics
Magnetic Flux

South Magnet North

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Current Flow in Conductor

- +

Current Flowing in a Conductor

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Generated Field Around
Conductor

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 Magnetic Field With Coil
North Magnetic Pole
+
+

-
-
South Magnetic Pole

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 Interaction with Medium
Magnetic Flux

S Metal N South Magnet North

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Alternating Current
Electricity

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 Electrical Properties
• Frequency
• Inductance (L)
– Mutual
– Inductive Reactance (XL)
• Capacitance (C)
– Capacitive Reactance (XC)
• Phase Angle/Power Factor
• Impedance (Z)
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 Frequency

0 90 180 270 360

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 Inductance
• Stores electromagnetic
energy in its magnetic
field
I lags V
• mH di
V L
dt
1 t
i   v( )d  i (0) 1 2
L 0 W  Li
2
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 Mutual Inductance
• When 2 coils in close N2 = 5 Turns
100 Volts
proximity, a changing
current in one coil will
induce a voltage in a
second coil

N1 = 5 Turns
100 Volts

0 90 180 270 360

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 Inductive Reactance XL

• Inductive Reactance is
the AC Resistance of a
coil
• Presented as a X L  2fL
resistance in Ohms
• Frequency and
Inductance Dependant

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 Capacitance
• Stores energy in an
electric field
+
• Dielectric between 2
plates
• The charged condition
is maintained until a -
discharge path is
present
• Causes current to lead
voltage
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Capacitive Reactance XC

1
XC 
2fC
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 Phase Angle / Power Factor

• In a coil or motor,
current lags behind
voltage VI
• This is represented as
an angle or a fraction
of ‘unity’ 0 90 180 270 360

• Adding C can improve

PF
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 Impedance Z

2 2
Z  R  (X L  XC )
Complex DC
AC Resistance X L  2fL X  1
Resistance C
2fC

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 Summary
• Atomic Structure and Electron Movement
• Conductors, Semi-Conductors, Insulators
• Basic Electricity: Current, Voltage and
Resistance
• Electrical and Magnetic Fields
• Alternating Current Electricity: L, C, XL, XC, Z

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AC Induction Motor
Theory
Howard W Penrose, Ph.D.
Instructor

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 Basic Motor Circuit

• Resistance
• Inductance
• Capacitance
• Phase Angle
• Inductive Reactance XL
• Capacitive Reactance XC
• Impedance R 2  ( X L  X C )2

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The Polyphase Induction Motor

Stator Stator Rotor

Windings Laminations Bearing

Fan

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Interaction of Rotor Field
and Stator Field
Interaction of Two Magnetic Fields

Electrical Energy
to
N Mechanical Torque

S
Rotor Field Stator Field
N

S
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Rotating Fields

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Rotating Field and Rotor Cage

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Rotor Cage

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Output Torque

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Operating Motor

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 Insulation System
Considerations for MCA
and Motor Connections
Quantum Mechanics and Motor Diagnostics

(C)2004, Howard W Penrose,

Ph.D., All rights reserved
STATOR LAMINATIONS

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 Stator Failure Modes
• Turn to Turn
• Coil to Coil
• Open Circuit
• Phase to Phase
• Coil to Ground

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Insulation Diagram of Motor
Phase A

Ground

Circuit Capacitance
Changes due to charge
Phase B Effects of atoms in
Insulation medium.
Dipoles are created
Phase C As electric field crosses
Atoms. As they align
Capacitance increases.
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 The Dipole

Neg Potential - + - Pos Potential

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Dipolar Motion in Operation
Capacitance
High
Wire

Low

GRND High

MegOhms
Wire High

Ground Insulation Low

High
Voltage

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Dipolar Motion in DC Tests
Capacitance
High
Neg

GRND Low

Pos
MegOhms
Neg High

Meg Low
Ohms

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Time
Dipolar Motion in Surge Test

Conductor 1 Conductor 2

Overcomes Dipolar
Spin and Circuit Impulse
Capacitance

Requires Higher Voltage as a Result

Voltage
In order to cross air gap (Paschen)
Potentially Destructive!!!
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Time
Accelerated Insulation Degradation

Arc during fault detection using surge test.

The separated insulation is the result of the arc (burned). The grey area on the
copper is carbonized insulation.

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 Dipolar Motion in MCA - 1

wire wire wire

wire wire wire

Good Phase
Phase Angle: 77 degrees
Current/Frequency: -44%
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 Dipolar Motion in MCA - 2

wire wire wire

Capacitive
Defect

wire wire wire

Bad Phase
Phase Angle: 73 degrees
Current/Frequency: -40%
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 Before and After Defect

1-2 1-3 2-3 1-2 1-3 2-3

Resistance 0.6821 0.6798 0.6865 Resistance 0.6786 0.6797 0.6819
Impedance 21 21 39 Impedance 21 21 39
Inductance 8 8 7 Inductance 8 8 7
Phase Angle 77 76 76 Phase Angle 77 77 76
I/F -47 -45 -47 I/F -47 -43 -47
Ins Resist >99 Ins Resist >99

MCA Result on MCA test results following surge test

20 hp with contamination and slight from previous example. Trips on start.
phase to phase defect. Still running.

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 Time to Failure
Estimation™ Techniques
Howard W Penrose, Ph.D.
T-Solutions, Inc.

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 Concept of TTFE
• Setting test frequencies such that faults can
be detected in advance
• Setting alarms at a point where fault
detection is effective
• Knowing that failures are random
• Know that the resistance to failure decreases
following detection of a CBM alarm

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 Condition-Directed Example

100% A (New Motor Installed)

•
B (Insulation begins to degrade between turns)
•
Resistance to failure

P (Interturn insulation degradation detection)

•

F (Winding fails)
0% •
Inspection Interval 
½(F-P)

Operating age (time T)

Source: reliability-centered maintenance, Nowlan and Heap

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Example of TTFE in
MCA

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 This Presentation
• Stages of Winding Failure
• Causes and Effects
• Trending
• Time to Failure Discussion
– < 600 Vac
– Standard, integral, three phase motors,
operating an average of 4000 hours
– 50% load, balanced voltage, good power quality,
constant load
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 Insulation Breakdown
• Contamination
– Moisture and electric field
expansion
– Gasses, vapors, dust, etc.
• Arc Tracking
– High Current Between
Conductors
• Thermal Aging (10oC)

Partially Assembled 125 horsepower

Motor in repair shop

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 Insulation Breakdown
• VFD Applications
– Partial Discharge
• Mechanical Faults
– Stress cracking Stators awaiting assembly after rewind
– Parts Faults

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Stages of Winding Failure
• Time to Failure
– Severity of the Fault
– Potential Between Conductors
– Type and Amount of Insulation
– Cause of the Fault
– Cycling and Load
• Contamination, Thermal, Moisture
Incursion, Corona, Transients, Overloads,
etc. may initiate fault.
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 Stage 1
• Insulation between conductors stressed
• Changes to R and C between conductors
• High temps and reactive faults
• Carbonization begins to occur
• MCA values of Fi and I/F begin to change

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 Stage 2

• Fault becomes more Resistive

• Mutual Inductance between good and bad
• I2R losses increase at point of fault
• Motor may start tripping although may run
after short cooling period (ins res increases
as insulation cools)

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 Stage 3
• Insulation breaks down
• Possible explosive rupture
• Vaporization of windings
• Inductance and sometimes resistance may
change
Stage 3 winding failure

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 Review
• MCA Requirement:
– Resistance – Loose connections, Broken Wires (~5%)
– Impedance and Inductance – Rotor position or contaminated
windings. Also, used for rotor test in assembled equipment. (Parallel
good, Unparallel bad)
– I/F and Fi – Early winding shorts (I/F: +/-2; Fi: +/-1)
– Insulation Resistance – Ground Faults (5 MOhm/100 MOhm)
• Combination used for troubleshooting or trending
• Comparative tests: Assumes that phases do not fail at same
rate

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 How Trended

• AC Motors
– % unbalance: R, Z and L
– Phase Diff: I/F and Fi
– Reading: Insulation Resistance

MCA
• Induction Rotors: Need Being used to confirm the
numerical method (Rotor Winding voltage connection
in a submersible
Grading System – RGS) Pump.

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AC Rotating Machine Testing

Reading Change from Severity

Baseline
R, Z, L < 3% Green
R, Z, L >3 and <5% Yellow
R, Z, L >5% Red
Fi, I/F <1 pt Green
Fi, I/F >1 and <3 Yellow
Fi, I/F >3 Red
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Trended Reading

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AC Motor 2

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 PdM Testing Frequency

Motor Type Clean/Dry Moderate Dirty/Wet

Environment Environment Environment
3-Phase 12 Mo 9 Mo 6 Mo
Non-Critical
3-Phase 6 Mo 6 Mo 3 Mo
Production
3-Phase 3 Mo 2 Mo 1 Mo
Critical
DC Motors 6 Mo 6 Mo 3 Mo
Transformer 12 Mo 9 Mo 6 Mo
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Estimating Time To Failure!

What To Do Once A Fault Is

Detected

Motor ready for test in motor repair shop

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 What Makes Fault
Detection Difficult?
• Time To Failure
– Application
– Type of Fault
– Severity of Fault
• Based upon Stages of Failure, Insulation fails
over time

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 Winding Contamination

6
Time to Action (Months)

4
3

0
Annual 9Months Semi Quarterly Monthly
Test Frequency
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 Turn to Turn Shorts

10

8
Time to Action (Months)

1pt
6 2pt
4 3pt
>3
2

0
Annual 9 Months Semi Quarterly Monthly
Test Frequency
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 Phase to Phase or Coil to Coil

7
6
5
Time to Action (Months)

1pt
4
2pt
3
3pt
2
>3
1
0
-1 Annual 9 Months Semi Quarterly Monthly
Test Frequency
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TTFE Software

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 Final Comments

• When is TTFE effective?

– Technology can detect developing faults
(Condition-Based)
– Optimized testing frequency or continuous
monitoring
– A history exists or can be obtained
– Multiple-Technology approach to confirm
condition and stage of failure
– Understanding that the functional failure is not
instantaneous and some forcing function drives
the failure
– Action is taken on findings: Risk-based decision
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SUCCESS by DESIGN
5 Dogwood Ln
Old Saybrook, CT 06475

Ph: 860 575-3087 Fax: 860 577-8537

http://www.motordoc.net
howard@motordoc.net
(c)2005 Penrose