Emotion

Stage 1 Psychology
 Emotion Topic Lessons
When we go through the content of ‘emotion’, the
theme/colour of the slides is red.

When we go through science inquiry skills (SIS), the

theme/colour of the slides is gold.

Remember, we go through both during this topic and

refer back to SIS throughout the entire course in other
topics.
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What is emotion?

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 What is emotion?
Definition
A personal experience that involves a mixture of the following:
• Physiological responses
• Subjective feelings
• Expressive behaviour

All three elements combine to form a complex pattern of bodily and

mental changes, associated with the experience of an emotion.

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 What is emotion?
Physiological Responses
Refers to the changes in our bodies when we experience an
emotion.

• Heart rate
• Galvanic skin response (sweating)
• Blood pressure
• Dilated pupils
• Adrenaline release (causes shaking)
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 What is emotion?
Subjective Feelings
Refers to the inner, personal experience of an emotion,
including the way in which we think about an emotion.

Reasons why a person is feeling an emotion.

The term ‘subjective’ means that it is subject to bias/opinion.

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 What is emotion?
Expressive Behaviour
Refers to many outward observable expressions of behaviour
which communicate emotions.

• Facial expressions
• Hand gestures
• Posture

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 BASIC EMOTIONS
Definition
Emotions that are common across
the human species and which
have characteristic physiological,
subjective and expressive
components.

Most descriptions from

psychologists include between 5 –
9 basic emotions.
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Research Designs
Stage 1 Psychology

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 Research Designs
The plans researchers use to answer their question and
hypothesis. In other words, the way
experiments/investigations are designed or set up.

▸ Three types:
○ Experimental
○ Observational
○ Qualitative Observational
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 experimental
Essential Elements:
▸ Presence of a control group
○ Control group: does not receive the treatment (IV)
○ Experimental group: does receive the treatment (IV)

▸ Random Allocation of participants

▸ Hypothesis testing
▸ Pre and post testing
▸ IV is always manipulated
▸ Done in a controlled setting such as a lab

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 experimental
Advantages
▸ Easy to replicate
▸ Maximises control of
extraneous variables
▸ Generalisations can be
made
▸ Explanations between
variables i.e. IV did/did not
have an effect on the DV

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 experimental
Disadvantages
▸ May not be applicable to
the real world
▸ May not represent entire
population
▸ Ethical concerns
▸ Some variables can not be
manipulated

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 OBSERVATIONAL
Essential Elements:
▸ Allows for research in a natural setting of the participants.

▸ Only associations between variables can be made, not

correlations or explanations.

▸ Essential Feature: IV is NOT manipulated – is pre-existing.

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 Observational
Advantages
▸ Allows study of more
complex aspects
▸ Allows study of variables
which are unethical or
impossible to
manipulate
▸ Allows for bigger sample
sizes
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 Observational
Disadvantages
▸ Hard to replicate study
▸ Lack of control of
extraneous variables
▸ Observer bias can alter
the results
▸ Does not allow for
generalisation of results

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 Qualitative
Essential Elements:
▸ Uses words and language to gather data
▸ Can gain in-depth knowledge of a particular topic
▸ Useful if topic is not widely known

Types of Qualitative Designs:

▸ Focus groups
▸ Surveys
▸ Interviews
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 Qualitative
Focus Groups
▸ Investigates participants attitudes on a certain topic
▸ Informal interview using small group of people (6-15)
▸ Series of questions used
▸ Facilitator leads the group discussion
▸ Scribe records (writes or types) what is being said

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 Qualitative
Surveys
▸ Uses interviews or questionnaires to ask people
about their attitudes or behaviour about a given
topic
▸ Can be administered easily to large groups of
people

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 Qualitative
Advantages
▸ Possibly more convenient
▸ Significant amount of rich
verbal data collected
▸ Opinions can be
expressed
▸ Useful if little is known
about topic

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 Qualitative
Disadvantages
▸ Can not generalised
results
▸ Presence of the observer
could affect what is
discussed
▸ Bias

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 Research Designs

Experimental observational Qualitative

The design we The design we The design we
control observe discuss

REMEMBER!
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 Placebo Effect
Definition
When a person’s response is influenced by their beliefs or
expectations rather than the specific procedure intended to
produce that response.

Very common in drug trials – participants are given

medication and told it will effect them, when in reality the
drug is inert (usually sugar, vitamins or saline).

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 PLACEBO EFFECT – DERREN BROWN
Derren Brown is a famous mentalist
who does extreme experiments on
participants.

Conducted one on the placebo effect

and the emotion of fear.

Gave a new drug called ‘Rumyodin’

which claimed to cure fears and
phobias in people, but was in fact a
placebo.
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Subjective Feelings
Stage 1 Psychology

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 Subjective Feelings
The way we interpret an event or experience, our beliefs and
expectations about the event all combine to influence our
subjective feelings associated with an emotional response.

Individuals experience a similar range of emotions, but differ in

the intensity of their emotional experience.

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 Subjective Feelings
• People with mental illness may experience emotions
differently e.g. borderline personality disorder – very intense
emotions especially anger and sadness.

• Can be represented and measured using a continuum, which

is a type of rating scale.

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 Subjective Feelings
LOW HIGH
INTENSITY INTENSITY

Annoyed Frustrated Mad Angry Furious Enraged

A continuum representing anger on a scale of intensity

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 Subjective Feelings
Rating scales are a type of self report data (participants make
their own reports on their feelings.)

• May not be accurate

• Every person is different in rating their emotions
• People deny emotions or refuse to reveal them

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Research Methods
Stage 1 Psychology

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 Research Methods
Type of data psychologists collect from their experiments and
investigations. The ‘method’ of getting data.

Three main types:

▸ Objective Quantitative
▸ Subjective Quantitative
▸ Qualitative

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 Research Methods
Objective
▸ Free from interpretation and/or bias

Subjective
• Can be altered by opinions and bias

Quantitative
▸ Data using numbers

Qualitative
▸ Data using words, language and pictures
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 Objective Quantitative
Examples of objective quantitative measures:

Standardised Tests:
○ Scores on test have the same meaning.
○ Used the same way on each occasion.

Physiological Measures
○ Measure of body functions i.e. heart rates, blood
pressure etc.

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 Subjective Quantitative
Examples of subjective quantitative measures:
Rating scales
Participants select their response from a fixed
statement.
Likert scale frequently used
‘Psychology is awesome’
○ 1=strongly agree, 2=agree, 3=neutral,
4=disagree, 5=strongly disagree

Intensity of emotions scale an example of subjective

quantitative.
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 Qualitative
Examples of qualitative measures:

▸ Open ended and very general items

▸ Questionnaires
▸ Surveys
▸ Interview responses
▸ Pictures

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Measuring Data in
Psychology
Stage 1 Psychology

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 Measuring Data in Psychology
Descriptive Statistics
▸ Summary of scores. Table

▸ Can be represented
in a table or a graph.

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Measuring Data in Psychology
Graph

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 Measuring Data in Psychology
Central Tendency
Summarises the centre or mid point of a distribution:
Four measures of central tendency
○ Mean
○ Median
○ Mode
○ Range

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 Measuring Data in Psychology
Mean Example
▸ Most commonly used. ▸ 3, 4,5,7,2,3,5
▸ Also known as the
‘arithmetic average.’ ▸ 3+4+5+7+2+3+5 = 29
▸ Adding values together
then divide by the total ▸ 29/7 = 4.1
number of values:

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 Measuring Data in Psychology
Median Example
▸ Score found in exact middle ▸ 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 125 = 7
of distribution.
▸ Used when extreme outliers ▸ 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10 = 6+7 = 13/2
are present in distribution. = 6.5
▸ Calculated by placing values
in ascending order and
▸ E.g. 3,4,6,7,8, 10, 125
finding the middle number.
outlier > the mean = 23.2
= skewed
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 Measuring Data in Psychology
Mode Example
▸ Most frequently occurring ▸ 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6, 7 = 5
value in a set of scores. (occurs three times)

▸ Only used when data is in

categories.
▸ Calculated by counting
which value occurs the
most.
▸ Can be more than one mode.
▸ If there is no mode, write N/A
or ‘no mode’, never 0.

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 Measuring Data in Psychology
Range Example
▸ Difference between
greatest and least • 3,4,5,7,2,3,5
values in a set of data.
▸ Calculated by taking • 7-2 = 5 is the
away the smallest value
range
from the largest vale.

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Physiological
Responses
Stage 1 Psychology

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 Physiological Responses
Refers to the changes in our bodies that occur when we
experience an emotion.

Some are similar for different emotions:

E.g. fear and rage both increase heart rate, but have different
skin temperature, hormones secreted, and different parts of
the brain are activated.

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 Physiological Responses
Fear: some are not noticeable e.g.
speeding up of the metabolism,
liver releases extra glucose,
breathing rate increases, digestion
slows, pupils dilate, saliva dries up
and we sweat.

Common symptoms of the ‘flight

or fight’ response.

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 LOW LEVEL HIGH LEVEL
OF AROUSAL OF AROUSAL

Sleep Normal Stress

Flight or fight
response

Flight or Fight Response

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 Flight or Fight Response
Bodies physiological reaction to a threat. Body prepares itself to
confront the threat (fight), or run away (flight).

• Sometimes a third component called ‘fright’ meaning we

freeze.

• System responsible is the autonomic nervous system (ANS).

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 Flight or Fight Response
The autonomic nervous system controls functions that are not
voluntary (heart rate, production of sweat, lungs, stomach
function etc.)

The autonomic nervous system has two divisions: sympathetic

nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system.

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 Flight or Fight Response
Sympathetic Nervous System
Responds to stress and speeds up the body’s functioning.

Responsible for our adaptive response to stress known as flight, fright or fight
response.

When we are exposed to a threat, this system speeds up heart rate, increases
blood pressure and blood flow to muscles, pupils widen, perspiration and
respiration increase and digestion decreases.

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 Flight or Fight Response
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Important for slowing down body’s functioning.

Responsible for the maintenance of our body’s energy.

Assists with heart regulation and digestive processes as well as returning the
body to a state of rest following arousal.

The ability of the body to balance the sympathetic and parasympathetic

nervous systems is important for maintaining adaptive and healthy
functioning.
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Autonomic Nervous System

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 Yerkes-Dodson Law
Level of arousal is closely related to task performance.

The Yerkes-Dodson Law states that humans need a low level of

arousal for a difficult cognitive task, and a high level of arousal
for a simple cognitive task. Often the best level is in the middle.

The goal is to achieve an optimum level of arousal, meaning we

will perform the task at the best level of physiological arousal.
Particularly relevant in sport.

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 Yerkes-Dodson Law
Simple cognitive task:
A task which does not require a high level of mental
concentration/cognition.
Examples?

Complex/difficult cognitive task:

A task which does require a high level of mental
concentration/cognition.
Examples?

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Yerkes-Dodson Law

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 Yerkes-Dodson Law
Too little arousal – bored, tired: may not perform the task at the
optimum level.

Too much arousal – stress, nervous, hyperactive: may not perform

the task at optimum level.

The optimum level of arousal (OLA) depends on the familiarity and/or

difficulty of the task.

Individual differences also influence OLA, with certain people being

natural ‘thrill seekers’.
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Ethics in Psychology
Stage 1 Psychology

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 Ethics
All investigations and experiments need to be approved by
ethics committee.
Obligation of Psychologist to ensure participants safety.
• There are 5 main ethical principles.
• Informed consent
• Voluntary participation
• Confidentiality
• Right to withdraw
• Debriefing
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 Ethics
Informed Consent:
▸ Informed of all rights, risks and aim of
investigation.
▸ First language to participants.
▸ Must never involve bribery or
coercion.
▸ Consent form essential.
▸ Participants under 18 must have
parent/caregiver consent.

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 Ethics
Voluntary Participation
▸ Participants can not be bribed,
threatened or coerced.
▸ No negative consequences for
refusal.

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 Ethics
Confidentiality
▸ No personal information
released.
▸ Anonymity is acceptable.
▸ Participants often given ID
numbers.
▸ Applies to storage of data,
access of data, publication.

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 Ethics
Right to withdraw
▸ Withdraw at any time without
explanation.
▸ Will not incur negative
consequences.

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 Ethics
Debriefing
▸ Occurs after the experiment has
finished.
▸ Researcher explains process.
▸ Answers any questions.
▸ Informs participants of
deception (if any).

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Other Ethical
Considerations

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 Ethics
Accurate Reporting
▸ Duty to publish their results.
▸ Give complete information
about research.
▸ Fabricate results.
▸ Take credit for other
psychologists/researchers
work.

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 Ethics
Deception
▸ Some investigation needs bias
to establish data.
▸ Only done if no significant
physical, emotional,
psychological, financial or
social harm is done.
▸ Only used if there is no other
way to achieve aim of research.
▸ Must be informed in debriefing.
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 Ethics
Research on animals
▸ Code of ethics in Australia is
very strict.
▸ Researcher needs to consider:
○ Welfare of the animal
○ Use of animal justified
○ Avoid pain and distress
○ Know the correct
maintenance, care and
handling of animal
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A Class Divided
Ethics and Emotion

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 A Class Divided
▸ Experiment conducted in 1968

▸ Jane Elliot, a teacher in a small town in

Iowa, divided her year 3 class in
accordance with eye colour and did a
daring demonstration of discrimination.

▸ Will examine the ethics, research design

and method used. Will also examine the
emotions observed.
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Evaluating Data
Stage 1 Psychology

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 Evaluating Data
Evaluate the results
We need to consider the following elements to determine if our
experiment/investigation was conducted as appropriately as
possible.

▸ Validity
▸ Reliability
▸ Representativeness
▸ Sample size
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 Evaluating Data
Sample Size
▸ Important to consider whether sample size is big
enough to draw conclusions from.

▸ 30 participants used for attitudes towards migration?

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 Evaluating Data
Representativeness
▸ Important that participants represent the whole
population in question.

▸ Studying societies attitudes towards migration:

○ Using all female participants between 20 and 40 years
○ Using both genders equally aged between 18-75.

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 Evaluating Data
Validity
Refers to whether a test accurately measures what it claims to.
▸ Measuring time with a faulty watch? High or low validity?
If high in validity, conclusions can be drawn.

External validity: results achieved in a controlled environment can be applied

to real life scenario.

▸ Extraneous variables.
▸ Researcher making impossible conclusions.
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 Evaluating Data
Reliability
Whether results can be consistently achieved i.e. the consistency of results.

▸ Inconsistencies in repeated experiment.

▸ Different participants.
▸ Conditions during data collection.

▸ A measure can be reliable (consistent) without being valid (accurately

measuring), but a measure can not be valid unless it is reliable.

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The Little Albert
Experiment
Stage 1 Psychology
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 Little Albert Experiment
Conducted by John B. Watson in 1920

Wanted to investigate if fear could be controlled

and/or manipulated in humans

Watson chose an 8 month old infant to conduct

this experiment. Given the nickname ‘Little
Albert’

One of the most infamous experiments on

emotion in psychological history
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 Little Albert Experiment
Based on the work of Ivan Pavlov
• 1849-1936
• Russian physician/ neurophysiologist
• Studied digestive secretions in dogs
• Discovered Classical Conditioning

Watson took Pavlov's concept and applied it

to emotional fear in Albert

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Little Albert Experiment

Neutral Stimulus
No response

Neutral Stimulus: Little Albert did not have a negative reaction

to the white rat. Gained a neutral response from Albert.

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Little Albert Experiment

Unconditioned stimulus
(striking steel bar) Unconditioned response
(crying/fear)

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Little Albert Experiment

Neutral stimulus

Unconditioned response
(Crying/fear)
Unconditioned
stimulus (Loud noise)

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Little Albert Experiment
Repetition of pairing (rat + noise)

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Little Albert Experiment
Classical conditioning achieved

Conditioned stimulus
(White rat)
Conditioned response
(crying/fear)
...even without striking the bar!

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 Little Albert Experiment
Recap
White rat started out as a neutral stimulus

Loud noise was an unconditioned stimulus

When Albert started crying upon hearing the unpleasant noise, it

was an unconditioned response

No learning had occurred

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 Little Albert Experiment
Repeatedly pair the unpleasant sound + sight of white rat, Albert was
eventually be conditioned to cry/be fearful upon seeing the white rat

The white rat is now a conditioned stimulus

Albert crying to the sight of the white rat is now a conditioned response

New emotional behaviour has been learnt

Concluded that fears and phobias are often developed through a classical
conditioning pairing
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Expressive
Behaviours
Stage 1 Psychology

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 Activity
Anger Fear Disgust

Surprise Happiness Sadness

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 Expressive Behaviours
The many outward observable expressions of behaviour
which communicate emotions.

Not always accurate to interpret solely from this

1.Some expressions same for 2 different emotions

2.Could be a mixture of emotions
3.People can control some of their expressions
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 Universality of Expressive
Behaviours
May have biological component
E.g. anger similar on faces of animals and
humans, blind children still smile

Must also be learned because blind children

grow less expressive as they get older 
conclude that we learn by observation

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 Expressive Behaviours
Display rules are patterns of emotional expression
considered appropriate within a culture or sub-culture

• Cultures that encourage individuality and freedom of

expression e.g. Western often show intense and
prolonged emotional displays

• Relates to the ‘social’ of the biopsychosocial model of

behaviour
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 Expressive Behaviours
• Eastern culture more reserved, displays are very brief
especially grief & anger

• Eastern culture emphasizes social connectedness and

interdependence; therefore it is considered
‘inappropriate’ to disrupt the community

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 Expressive Behaviours
• Gestures can mean different things in different
cultures e.g. hand signals, how we greet people we
know, use of touch

• Particularly important when working with people of

different cultures e.g. at the Olympics

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Expressive Behaviours
Australia: ‘OK’ or ‘Good’
Germany: The number one
Japan: The number five
Ghana: An insult
Australia: OK
France: ‘You are worthless’
Brazil: obscene gesture
Japan: ‘Please give me coins’
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Australia: Stop
Greece: An insult
West Africa: An insult
suggesting the person to
whom the gesture is
made does not know
who their father is.
France: Perfect
Mediterranean: a vulgar
gesture