SETS

What is Sets?
• A Set is simply any collection of objects called elements.
If a set is finite and not too large, we can describe it by
listing the element in it.
A= {1,2,3,4} (2.1.1)

• A Set is determined by its elements and not by any

particular order in which the elements might be listed.
Thus A might just as well be specified as.
A = {1,3,4,2}
What is Sets?
• The elements making up a set are assumed to be distinct,
and although for some reasone we may have duplicate in
our list, only one occurrence of each element is in the set.
For this reason we may also
describe the set A (2.1.1) as.

A = {1,2,2,3,4}
• If a Set is a large finite set or an infinite set. we can
describe it by listing a property neccessary for
membership. For example. The equation

B = { x | x is a postive , even integer}

(2.1.2)
• The vertical bar “|” is read “such that.” equation
(B = { x | x is a postive , even integer})
would be read “ B equals the set of all x such that x is a
is a positive, even integer.”Note that the property
appears after the verical
bar.
if X is a finite set, we let
|X| = number of elements in X
Given a description of a set X such as (2.1.1) or (2.1.2) and an
element x, we can determine wheter or not x belongs to X. If a
member or X are listed as in (2.1.1). we simply look to see wheter or
not x appears in the listing. In a description such as (2.1.2), we
check to see wheter the element x has the property listed. If x is in
the set X, we write x ∉X.
if x = 1, then x ∈ A, but x ∉B, where A and B are given by
equation(2.1.1) and (2.1.2).
• The set with no elements
is called the
empty(null,void) set and is
denoted Ø. Thus Ø = { }.
• Two sets X and Y are
equal and we write X = Y
have the same elements.
to put it another way, X = Y
if whenever
x ∈ X , then x ∈ Y and
whenever x ∈ Y, then x ∈ X.
Basic Step. If n = 0, X is the empty set. The only subset
of the empty set is the empy set itself; thus
|P(X)| = 1 =2°= 2
Thus (2.1.3) is true for n = 0
• Thus (2.1.3) is true for n = 0
Inductive Step. Assume that
(2.1.3) holds for n. Let X be a set
with |X| = n + 1. Choose x ∈ X.
We divide P(X) into rwo classes.
The first class consist of those
subsets of X that include x, and
the second class consists of
those subsets of X that do not
include x. if we list the subsets of
X that do not include x,
X1, X2 ,,,, Xk
Joint and Disjoint
• Joint sets are set with common elements (intersection).
Example:
A = {c, a, r, e}
B = {b, e, a, r, s}

• Disjoint sets are set with no common elements.

Example:
The set A = {a, b, c} and B = {e, f, g} are disjoint sets, since
no elements is common.
Universal Set
• The set of all elements. We will use the letter U to denote
universal set.
EXAMPLE:
If A = { 1, 2, 3} and B = { 3, 4,5, 5}, then the universal
set U is, U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
• The empty set or null set is the set that contains no elements.
The symbol ∅ 𝑜𝑟 { } is represent the empty set.
EXAMPLE:
A = {days start with letter G}
B = {triangles with 4 sides}
Subset
• If A and B are sets, then A is called a subset of B, written A ⊆ B, if,
and only if, every element of A is also an element of B.
• A ⊆ B means that for all elements 𝑥, if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 then 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵.
• Symbolically:
• The phrases A is contained in B and B contains A are alternative
ways of saying that A is a subset of B.
• A ⊆ B means that there is at least one element 𝑥 such
• that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 then 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵.
Proper Subset
• Let A and B be sets, A is a proper subset of B, if, and only
if, every element of B is in B but there is a least one
element of B that is not in A.
Example
• Let A = 𝑍+, 𝐵= { 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 | 0 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 100}, and
𝐶 = {100, 200, 300, 400, 500}.
Evaluate the truth and falsity of each of the following statements.
1. 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴False. Zero is not a positive integer. Thus zero is in B but
zero is not in A, and so B ⊆ A.
2. 𝐶 is a proper subset of A True. Each element in C is a positive
integer and, hence, is in A, but there are elements in A that are
not in C. For instance, 1 is in A and not in C.
Example
Let A = 𝑍+, 𝐵= { 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 | 0 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 100}, and
𝐶 = 100, 200, 300, 400, 500.
Evaluate the truth and falsity of each of the following statements.
3. C and B have at least one element in common.
True. For Example, 100 is in both C and B
4. C ⊆ B False. For Example, 200 is in C but not in B.
5. C ⊆ CTrue. Every element in C is in C. In general, the definition
of subset implies that all sets are subsets of themselves .
Ordered pair
• Given elements a and b, the symbol (a, b) denotes the
ordered pair consisting of a and b together with the
specification that a is the first element of the pair and b is
the second element.
• Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are equal if, and only
if, a = c and b = d. Symbolically
• (a, b) = (c, d) means that a = c and b = d
Example
• Is (1, 2) = (2, 1)?
No, by definition of equality of ordered pairs.

• What is the first element of (1, 1)?

In the ordered pair (1, 1), the first and the second elements
are both 1.
Cartesian Product
• Given sets A and B, the Cartesian product of A and B,
denoted A x B and read “A times B,“ is the set of all
ordered pairs (a, b) where a is in A and b is in B.
Symbolically:

A x B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A and b ∈ B}
 Example
• Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {u, v}
Find A x B. 𝐴𝑥𝐵 = {(1, 𝑢), (2, 𝑢), (3, 𝑢), (1, 𝑣), (2, 𝑣), (3, 𝑣)}
Find B x A. 𝐵𝑥𝐴 = { (𝑢, 1), (𝑢, 2), (𝑢, 3), (𝑣, 1), (𝑣, 2), (𝑣, 3)}
Find B x 𝐵𝑥𝐵 = { (𝑢, 𝑢), (𝑢, 𝑣), (𝑣, 𝑢), (𝑣, 𝑣)}
B. How many elements are in A x B, B x A, and B x B?
𝐴 𝑥 𝐵 has six elements, 𝐵 𝑥 𝐴 has six elements and
𝐵 𝑥 𝐵 has four elements.