Gem 2022

GENERAL MATHEMATICS
FESM: GEM 100110 (10 credits)

FENS: GEM 100110 (10 credits)
FCIS: CAL 400110 (10 credits)
Brief Description of Aims
General Mathematics module is intended to provide students with
the mathematical background necessary for the specializations of
the programmes like Accounting, Finance, Economics, Marketing,
Cooperative management, Human Resource Management,
Engineering and Environmental studies.
The module digests Business Mathematics that modern Managers
need in their business and economic decision making by illustrating
how to apply the most widely used Fundamental Mathematics
methods in business [Business is an occupation or trade (the
purchase and sale) of products or services in an attempt to make
profit].
As engineers in CIS and ENS still need a solid foundation in
Mathematics and a good understanding of mathematical
principles, this module is prepared accordingly.
Indicative content
Chapter 1: Algebra
1.1.Sets of numbers
1.2.Polynomials
1.3.Powers and radicals
1.4. Linear and quadratic equations
1.5. Matrix Algebra
1.5.1. Definitions and types of matrices (Classification)
1.5.2. Operations on matrices
1.5.3. Determinant of a matrix.
1.5.4. Inverse of a matrix
1.5.5. Applications (Systems of linear equations and
different methods of solutions)
Indicative content (Cont’d)
Chapter 2: Basic notions on numerical functions
2.1. Introduction on functions
2.2. Domain and range
2.3. Composition of functions
2.4. Inverse functions
2.5. Logarithmic and exponential functions
Chapter 3: Limit, continuity and sequences
3.1. Concept of limit
3.2. Properties of limits
3.3. Indeterminate forms.
3.4. Concept of continuity
3.5. Sequences or progressions
3.5.1. Brief history
3.5.2. Basic Definitions
3.5.3. Monotonic sequence
3.5.4. Limit of a Sequence
3.5.5. Arithmetic and geometric sequences
Chapter 4:Differentiation(derivatives)and applications
4.1. Definitions
4.2. Alternate notations (Functional notation and
Leibniz notation)
4.3. Geometrical interpretation of the derivative
4.4. Differentiation formulas (some basic derivatives)
4.5. Applications of derivatives
Chapter 5: Integration of numerical functions
and applications
5.1. Antiderivative and indefinite integration
5.2. Notation for antiderivative
5.3 Basic integration rules
5.4 Definite integrals
5.5 Applications of integrals (computing the area
of a surface)
CHAPTER 1: ALGEBRA
1.1.Sets of numbers
Natural numbers ()
The first mathematical skills that you learn is the skills
of counting; One , two, three,... in mathematical
those numbers are called “counting numbers or
natural numbers”. There are ten basic symbols used
for representing natural numbers.
These are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9. “0” is a whole number
but is not considered as to be a natural number.
• Odd and even numbers
Natural number can be classified into various groups
e.g: odd, even, prime, square cube, etc...
A number which is not exactly divisible by 2 is called an
odd number. Hence: 1, 3,5,7,9 are odd numbers.
A number which is exactly divisible by 2 is called an
even number. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, …
• Prime number
A natural number, which is divisible by only 1 and itself,
is called a prime number.
Numbers such as: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, and 19…, are
prime numbers. Not that all prime numbers except 2
are odd numbers; 1 is not a prime number.
Integers: (
• The numbers: 1, 2, 3...are called natural numbers ().
Each of the natural numbers: 1, 2, 3... has an
opposite or an inverse.-1(read As “negative one”)is
the opposite of 1 or inverse of 1,-2 is that of 2,-3 is
that of 3 and so on.
Similarly the inverse of: -3 is +3,-6 is +6 and so on.
Numbers: -1,-2, -3...are negatives integers.
Positive integers, negative integers and zero together
constitute the integers(from the Latin word integer
meaning” whole”)
Rational numbers:
The numbers such as: , , , , , are called rational numbers.
Any number represented by the form (read a over b)
where a and b are integers and b≠0 is a rational number.
Since is the fractional notation for the content the set of
rational numbers is denoted by “” (for quotient).
In set notation: ={ : a, b , b≠0}.

We read this as: is a set of rational numbers , such that
a, b are integers and b is not equal to zero.
Irrational Numbers: (’)
This is a set of all numbers that cannot be expressed
as fractions it is a set of all decimal numbers that do
not terminate or go on without end.
Irrational numbers include all number, whole not
exactly whole numbers, that is whole roots
decimates that terminate non repeat.
Example: , , and so on.
But irrational numbers also include all other non-
terminating decimal like value of 𝜋
In general, a number is not a perfect square if it is not
a product of two similar numbers; then, its square
root is irrational. This ’= {irrational number}
= {p=p is non-repeating indefinite decimal}
And we say that ’ is a set of decimal numbers p such
that p is a non-repeating indefinite decimal numbers.
Square roots of irrational numbers are called surds.
Examples: , , and so on.
Set Of Real Numbers (ℝ)
Real numbers comprise all numbers we have discussed
this including both sets of rational and irrational
numbers. And the set of real numbers is given by ℝ= {all
rational and irrational numbers on number line}.
Thus we say that all other sets of numbers are contained
in the set of real numbers. Natural numbers() are
contained in whole numbers (IW), whole numbers are
contained in integers();integers are contained in rational
() and irrational number(’) and these are contained is
real numbers (ℝ). Using the symbol for subset J in we
see that: IW ’) ℝ
1.2. Polynomials
A polynomial has the form:
++…++
Where , , , …, and are real numbers and n is a
nonnegative integer and x is the argument.
In other words, a polynomial is the sum of one or more
monomials with real coefficients and nonnegative integer
exponents. The degree of the polynomial function is the
highest value for n where an is not equal to 0. Polynomial
functions of only one term are called monomials or
power functions.
Example:
Factorization: conversion in a product of factors
Grouping like terms
Trinomial: where a=1
Perfect square trinomial
Difference of two squares (use of conjugates)

Multiplication of polynomials
Division
• Long division
Exercises:
• Synthetic division
1.Divide: by
-9 1 1 1 1
-9 72 -657
1 -8 73 -656
2.Divide: 2 by
4 5 0 1 -8 2
20 80 324 1264
5 20 81 316 1266
3. Divide: by
-2 7 0 0 -1
-14 28 -56
7 -14 28 -57
4. Calculate:
Exercises: Calculate:
1 =5 =1 0
1.3. Powers and Radicals
When a is a real number and m and n are positive integers then the
following applies:
1. The Product Rule for exponents:
2. The Zero Exponent Rule:
3. The Quotient Rule for Exponents: :
4. The Power of a Power Rule for Exponents:
5.The Power of a Product Rule for Exponents:
6.The Power of a Quotient Rule for Exponents:
7. Conversion of a radical into a fractional exponent:
1.4. Linear and quadratic equations
A linear equation is an algebraic expression for which
the graphing results in a straight line. The general
form of linear equation is:
y = ax + b or f(x)=ax+b
• b is the y-intercept
• a is the gradient (or slope)
Example: y=11+3x
⏟𝑦
( )
=𝑓 𝑥⏟
¿𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑛 ¿𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟 cov 𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙
¿ ¿
¿ 𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 var𝑖 𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 ¿ 𝑜𝑟 exp𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑦 var 𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
Graphing a linear function:
X y
0 2
(-2/7)=-0.3 0
x y
0 5
(5/3)=1.7 0
Remark:
The slope of a line may be positive, negative, zero or
undefined.
1. Positive, then the line rises from left to right
2. Negative, then the line falls from left to right
3. Zero, then the line is horizontal line
4. Undefined, if the line is vertical line
The sign of the slope represents whether the line
falling or raising. Its magnitude shows the steepness
of the line.
The slope b of a straight line connecting two points
and is given by the formula.
Example
Compute the slope of the line segment connecting
the two points (−2, 3) and (1, −9).
Solution:
Here we have = (−2,3) and = (1,−9) so using the above
formula we get,
Finding the equation of a straight line passing
through
two given points
Example
Given two points: (5,2) and (3,4), find a straight line
passing through them.
2
4
Rmk
For perpendicular lines, the product of slopes is equal
to -1 (), while for parallel lines the slope is the same ().
;
• System of linear equations
Solving by:
• Graphical method
• Cramer’s rule
• Gaussian elimination
• Substitution method Sol: {(5,1)}
Applications
Linear cost function
Linear revenue function

Linear profit function: P(x)
The profit of an organization is the difference
between total revenue and total cost. x is quantity
produced and sold.
If total revenue exceeds total cost the profit is
positive. In such case, profit is referred as net gain or
net profit
On the other hand the negative profit is referred to as
a net loss or net deficit.
Straight line depreciation
Depreciation is what happens when assets lose value
over time until the value of the asset becomes zero,
or negligible.
With the straight line depreciation method, the value
of an asset is reduced uniformly over each period
until it reaches its salvage value.
Salvage value is the amount that an asset is estimated
to be worth at the end of its useful life. It is also
known as scrap value or residual value.
When organizations purchase an item, usually cost is
allocated for the item over the period the item is used.
Example
A company purchases a vehicle costing $20,000 having a
useful life of 5 years, then accountants might allocate $4,000
per year as a cost of owning the vehicle. The cost allocated to
any given period is called depreciation. The value of the truck
at the limp of purchase is $20,000 but, after 1 year the price
will be $20000- $4000 = $ 16000 and so forth. In this case,
depreciation can also be thought of as an amount by which
the book value of an asset has decreased over the period of
time. Thus, the book value declines as a linear function over
time. If 𝑽 equals the book value of an asset and 𝐭 equals time
(in years) measured from the purchase date for the
previously mentioned truck, then 𝐕 = 𝐟(𝐭).
Linear demand function: most of them are non-linear
but there are situations in which the demand
relationship is approximated by linear function.
The demand might be represented by a linear demand
function such as. Qd = -aP+b
Qd represents the demand for a good. P represents the
price of that good.
Economists might consider how sensitive demand is to a
change in price.
Linear supply function
The supply function can be written in the form of
an equation. Qs = cP+d. Where Qs is quantity supplied, d
= the level of supply independent of price, P = the market
price of the product.
Supply function s = s(p)
As prices of the commodity in question rise, the
quantity of that commodity supplied will also rise
and conversely, as prices fall, quantity to be
supplied will also fall, i.e. .
( p ↗then q ↗) and ( p ↘ then q ↘) .
Demand d=d(p)
As prices of the commodity in question rise, the
quantity of that commodity demanded will fall and
conversely, as prices fall, quantity demanded will
rise, i.e. .
( p ↗ then q ↘) and ( p ↘ then q ↗) .
Market equilibrium →
• Given supply and demand functions of a product, market
equilibrium exits if there is a price at which the quantity
demanded equals the quantity supplied.
Example
Suppose demand and supply functions have been estimated
for two competing products.
(Demand, Product 1)
(Demand, Product 2)
(Supply, Product 1)
(Supply, Product 2)
Determine the price for which the market equilibrium would

exist.
• Market equilibrium would exist:
==
==
=221 uc and =260 uc

uc (unit of currency)
== (2*221)-4=438 uw (unit of weight)
== (3*260)-6=774 uw
Quadratic equations
• A quadratic equation involving the independent
variable 𝑥 and the dependent variable 𝑦 has the
general form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, where 𝑎,𝑏,𝑐 are
constants and 𝑎 ≠ 0. Example: y=-5 + 17𝑥 -12
• The graphical representation is a parabola:
The concavity is upward when a>0 and downward
when a<0. To find the vertex, we use the following
formula:
Y-intercept: assume x=0
X-intercept: assume y=0
Graphing a quadratic equation
There is a shortcut way of sketching the graph of
quadratic function which is called point-by point
plotting. It consists of plotting enough points mainly
the vertex and y-intercept with x-intercept, in a
rectangular coordinate system so that the total graph
is apparent and then connect these points with a
smooth curve.
Example
Sketch the graph of:
Hint: Find main points (vertex and y-intercept with x-
intercept).
Exercise
1.Find the vertex, y-intercept and x-intercept for each
function.
2.Find the equilibrium point for the market above.

1.5 Matrix algebra
1.5.1. Definitions and types of matrices
• A matrix is an ordered set of numbers listed rectangular form
(a rectangular array of mxn numbers arranged in m horizontal
rows and n vertical columns).
• Example: Let A denote the matrix
[ ]
¿ 25 7 8
¿56 89
¿3901
• Where aij is the element in the ith row and jth column of A
• [ A short- hand notation which is often used is A= (aij)]
Dimension
A matrix which has m rows and n columns is said to
have dimension m x n
The dimension of a matrix is sometimes called its
shape or its size.
Square matrix
• If a matrix A has n rows and n columns, then we say
it's a square matrix.
• In a square matrix the elements ai, i, with i = 1, 2,
3,..., are called diagonal elements.
Remark: There is no difference between a 1 x 1
matrix and an ordinary number.
Diagonal matrix
A diagonal matrix is a square matrix with all non-diagonal elements
0.
The diagonal matrix is completely denoted by the diagonal
elements.
[ ]
Example:
7 0 0
0 5 0
0 0 6
The matrix is denoted by: diag (7, 5, 6)

Row matrix
A matrix with one row is called a row matrix
Example:
[1 5 8 4 ]
Column matrix
A matrix with one column is called a column matrix
Example:
[ ]
¿2
¿5
¿9
Matrices of the same kind
Matrix A and B are of the same kind if and only if A
has as many rows as B and A has as many columns
as B
[¿ 4 5 6 ] [¿ 0 4 6 ]
¿123 ¿789
Example:
𝐴= ; 𝐵=
Two mxn matrices A and B of the same kind are said

to be equal if for each i and j.
That is the corresponding elements are equal.
Example
The transpose of a matrix

The transpose of a matrix is found by exchanging
rows for columns (i.e. it is formed by turning rows
into columns or vice versa).
Matrix A = (aij) and the transpose of A is: AT = (aji)
where j is the column number and i is the row
number of matrix A.
For example, the transpose of a matrix would be:
0-matrix
When all the elements of a matrix A are 0, we call A
a 0-matrix (a null matrix).
We write shortly 0 for a 0-matrix.
An identity matrix I
An identity matrix I is a diagonal matrix with all
diagonal element = 1.
Upper Triangular matrix and Lower Triangular matrix

A scalar matrix S
A scalar matrix S is a diagonal matrix with all diagonal
[ ]
elements alike. ¿ 40 00
a1, 1 = ai, i for (i = 1, 2, 3,..., n) ¿ 04 00
¿ 004 0
¿ 000 4
The scalar multiplication cA of a matrix A and a
number c (also called a scalar in the parlance of
abstract algebra) is given by multiplying every entry
of A by c:
(cA) i,j = c · Ai,j.
The opposite matrix of a matrix
If we change the sign of all the elements of a matrix
A, we have the opposite matrix -A.
If A' is the opposite of A, then ai, j’ = -ai, j, for all i and j.
Example:
𝐴=
[ ] [
¿18− 3
¿4 −25
; 𝐴′= ¿−1−83
¿− 42−5 ]
A symmetric matrix
• A square matrix is called symmetric if it is equal to
its transpose.
Then ai, j = aj, i, for all i and j.
A skew-symmetric matrix
A square matrix is called skew-symmetric if it is
equal to the opposite of its transpose.
Then ai, j = -aj, i, for all i and j.
[ ] [ ] [ ]
¿ 05− 3 ¿ 0− 53 ¿05−3
𝑇 𝑇
𝐴= ¿−509 ; 𝐴 = ¿50− 9 ;− 𝐴 = ¿−509
¿3− 90 ¿− 390 ¿3− 90
Echelon matrices
,
• A matrix is an echelon matrix, or is said to be in
echelon form, if the number of zeros preceding the
first nonzero entry (distinguished element) of a
row increases row by row until only zero rows
remain, that is, if there exist non zero entries.
In particular, an echelon matrix is called a row
reduced echelon matrix if the distinguished
elements are:
• The only nonzero entries in their respective
columns;
• Each equal to 1.
The third matrix above is an example of a row
reduced echelon matrix, the other two are not.
1.5.2. Operations on matrices
Sum of matrices of the same kind (i.e same number of rows and
same number of columns)
To do sum of two matrices of the same kind, we simply do sum of the
corresponding elements.
Scalar multiplication
To multiply a matrix with a real number, we multiply each element
with this number.
Product of matrices
Note: Matrices are said to be conformable for
multiplication if the number of columns of the first
matrix is equal to the number of rows of the second
matrix. The product matrix has the same number of
rows as the first matrix and the same number of
columns as the second matrix.
(mxn)*(nxp)=mxp
Here is an example of matrix multiplication for two
2×2 matrices.
Here are examples of matrix multiplication for two

matrices.
Examples:
[ ][ ][ ][
¿ 4 5 ∗ ¿ 1 7 = ¿ (4 𝑥 1)+(5 𝑥 6 )(4 𝑥 7)+(5 𝑥 5) = ¿ 3 4 5 3
¿ 2 3 ¿ 6 5 ¿ (2 𝑥 1)+(3 𝑥 6 )(2 𝑥 7)+(3 𝑥 5) ¿ 2 0 2 9 ]
[ ][ ][ ][
¿1 7 ∗ ¿ 4 5 = ¿(1 𝑥 4 )+(7 𝑥 2)(1 𝑥 5)+(7 𝑥 3) = ¿ 1 8 26
¿65 ¿ 2 3 ¿ (6 𝑥 4)+(5 𝑥 2)(6 𝑥 5)+(5 𝑥 3) ¿ 3 4 4 5 ]
Falk’s scheme
i j k
l m n
x o p q
r s t
a b c d ai+bl+co+dr aj+bm+cp+ds ak+bn+cq+dt
e f g h ei+fl+go+hr ej+fm+gp+hs ek+fn+gq+ht
(2x4)*(4x3)=(2*3)
1.2.3. Determinant of a matrix
With each square matrix corresponds just one
number. This number is called the determinant of
the matrix. The determinant of a matrix A is
denoted det (A) or |A|. Now we'll define this
correspondence.
Determinant of a 1 x 1 matrix
The determinant of this matrix is the element itself.
Example:
det ([-7]) = -7
Determinant of a 2×2 matrix
Assuming A is an arbitrary 2×2 matrix A, where the
elements are given by:
then the determinant of this matrix is as follows:
Example:
| |
¿59 =(5∗7)−(8∗9)=35−72=−37
¿87
Determinant of a 3×3 matrix (Cofactor’s rule)
The determinant of a 3×3 matrix is a little more
tricky and is found as follows (for this case assume A
is an arbitrary 3×3 matrix A, where the elements are
given below).
Minor 𝑚𝑖𝑗 of an element
It is obtained by crossing out the row and the
column and find out the determinant of the rest.
Cofactor of an element
𝑐 𝑖𝑗= ¿
For the matrix above, the determinant is calculated as
follows:
det (¿ 𝐴)=𝑎11𝑐11+𝑎12𝑐12+𝑎 13𝑐13¿

[ ]
Given the matrix ¿ 2− 3 2
𝐴= ¿ 1 4 − 1
¿ −1 2 1
The cofactors are: 6 0 6
−7 4 1
−5 −4 11
The determinant of the matrix above is:
(2∗6)−(3∗0)+(2∗6)
Sarrus rule (it is used only on 3x3 matrices)
| | ‖ ‖
¿𝑎 𝑏𝑐 ¿ 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑎𝑏
¿ 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 =? ¿ 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑑𝑒
¿ 𝑔 h𝑖 ¿ 𝑔h𝑖𝑔h
By adding the two first columns on the right side of
this matrix we get the expression written on the
right hand side.
This helps us to find the value of the determinant
= aei + bfg + cdh - ceg - afh – bdi
[ ]
¿ 2− 3 2
𝐴= ¿ 1 4 − 1
¿ −1 2 1
Solution: det(A)=(2x4x1)+[-3x(-1)x(-1)]+(2x1x2)
-[(-1)x4x2]-[2x(-1)x2]-[1x1x(-3)]=(8-3+4+8+4+3=24)
Exercise
Find the following determinant:
| |
¿ 1 23
¿ 4 5 6 =?
¿7 8 9
1.2.4. Inverse of a matrix
Definition: Assuming we have a square matrix A,
which is non-singular (i.e. det (A) does not equal to
zero), then there exists an n×n matrix A-1 which is
called the inverse of A, such that this property
holds:
AA-1 = A-1A = I, where I is the identity matrix.
The inverse of a 2×2 matrix
Take for example an arbitrarily 2×2 matrix A whose
determinant (ad − bc) is not equal to zero.
where a, b, c, d are numbers. The inverse is:
 Swap the positions of a and d, put negatives

in front of b and c, and divide everything by the
determinant (ad-bc).
• Examples:
( )
¿− 21
𝐴=
( )
¿ 12
¿ 34
−1
⇒𝐴 =
1
(
¿ 4 −
)
2
(1 ∗ 4)−(2∗ 3) ¿ −31 ¿
= 3 −1
2 2
The inverse of a n×n matrix
The inverse of a general n×n matrix A can be found by
using the following equation.
Where adj(A) denotes the adjoint (or adjugate) of a

matrix.
The adjoint matrix is the transpose of the matrix of
cofactors.
Example:
[ ]
¿ 2 − 3 2 Minors:
6 0 6
𝐴= ¿ 1 4 − 1 −7 4 1
− 12 1 −5 −4 11
| | | |
¿6 06 ¿6 7 − 5
𝐶 𝑖𝑗 = ¿ 7 4 −1 𝑎𝑑𝑗 ( 𝐴)= ¿ 0 4 4
¿ − 5 4 11 ¿ 6 − 1 11
𝑎𝑑𝑗 ( 𝐴 )
[ ]
⇒ 𝐴−1 =
1 7 −5
4 24 24
| |
1 ¿ 67 − 5 1 1
det (¿ 𝐴 )= ¿ 044 = 0 ¿
24 6 6
¿ 6 − 111
1 −1 11
4 24 24
1.2.5. Solving Systems of Equations using Matrix calculus
Definition: A system of linear equations is a set of
equations with n equations and n unknowns. It is of
the following form:
The unknowns are denoted by x1, x2, ..., xn and the
coefficients (a and b above) are assumed to be
given. In matrix form the system of equations above
can be written as:
A simplified way of writing above expression is like

this: Ax = b
After looking at this, we will now look at four
methods used to solve a system of equations.
These are:
• Inverse Matrix Method
• Cramer's Rule
• Gaussian elimination method
• Gauss-Jordan method
Inverse Matrix Method
• Definition: The inverse matrix method uses
the inverse of a matrix to help solve a system
of equations, such like the above Ax = b. By
pre-multiplying both sides of this equation by
A-1 gives:
Or alternatively
with
Example: Solve the following system:
Cramer's Rule
Definition: Cramer's rule uses a method of
determinants to solve systems of equations.
Two simultaneous equations in x and y
Three simultaneous equations in x, y and z
• ax + by + cz = p
dx + ey + fz = q
gx + hy + iz = r
Example:
| | | | | |
¿21− 32 ¿2212 ¿2−321
¿1 4−1 ¿11− 1 ¿14 1
{
¿2𝑥− 3 𝑦+2 𝑧=21 ¿1721 48 ¿−1171 72 ¿−1217 312
¿ 𝑥+4 𝑦− 𝑧=1 ⇒ 𝑥= = =2; 𝑦= = =3; 𝑧= = =13
| | | | | |
¿− 𝑥+2 𝑦+𝑧=17 ¿2− 32 24 ¿2− 32 24 ¿2−32 24
¿1 4−1 ¿1 4 −1 ¿14− 1
¿−121 ¿−121 ¿− 121
Gaussian elimination method
Eliminate z in the first two equations and in the two last
equations:
{¿2𝑥−3 𝑦+2 𝑧=21

We get:
¿2𝑥+8 𝑦 −2 𝑧=2
Combining both, we obtain:
{¿ 4 𝑥 +5 𝑦 =23
¿ 6 𝑦 =18
y=3 and 4x+15=23, then x=2 and from

equation 1, we get:4-9+2z=21; z=13
Gauss –Jordan method
(using row-transformations for getting equivalent systems)
Definition: Two systems are equivalent if and only if
they have the same set of solutions
Example
{
¿ 2 𝑥 − 3 𝑦 +2 𝑧 =21
¿ 𝑥 + 4 𝑦 − 𝑧= 1
¿ − 𝑥 +2 𝑦 + 𝑧 =17
𝑅1 ↔𝑅2
Row combination
Up to a row reduced
Echelon matrix
(i.e, with 1 as a
Distinguished
Entry or the DE are
the only nonzero
entries in their
respective column).
{
¿ 𝑥 +4 𝑦 − 𝑧 =1
¿ 𝑦 + 4 𝑧 =55
¿ 𝑧 =13
Working from z to x, we find easily

z=13; y=3; x=2.
Exercises
Solve the following systems:
4x - 3y + z = - 10
2x + y + 3z = 0
- x + 2y - 5z = 17
CHAPTER 2: BASIC NOTIONS ON NUMERICAL FUNCTIONS
2.1. Introduction on functions

• A function f is a correspondence between two sets
of elements A and B such that for any x in A f maps
exactly Zero or One value y of B.
• A relation is a function if for every x in the domain
there is at most one y in the codomain.
• A vertical line through any element of the domain
should intersect the graph of the function exactly
once. Vertical line test of a function
Introduction on functions (Cont’d)
Functions and their graphs

• There are eight types of graphs that you will
see more often than other types: linear,
polynomial, power, quadratic, rational,
exponential, logarithmic, and sinusoidal.
Linear Graphs
Polynomial Graphs
Power Graphs
Quadratic Graphs
Rational Graphs
f(x) = ex
Exponential Function:
e= 2.718281828459050
Logarithmic Function: f(x) = ln(x)
Sine Function: y=sine x

Cosine Function: y=cosine x

Sine Function and Cosine Function

Tangent Function: y=tan x
y = tan x and y = cot x
Notation
The common using function notation is from Dirichlet:
2 2
𝑦 =2 𝑥 −5 𝑥+3 𝑜𝑟𝑓 ( 𝑥 )=2 𝑥 − 5 𝑥 +3
Function notation gives us a nice compact way of
representing function values.
The function evaluated at -3 gives:
𝑓 (−3)=2 ¿
Finding roots of a function
Definition: Finding the roots of a function f(x)is equivalent
to solving f(x)=0
Example :
Determine all the roots of f(x) = X³- 3x2 – 4x
X³- 3x2 – 4x = 0
x (x2 – 3x – 4) = 0
X₁=0 and x2 – 3x – 4 = 0
(x + 1)(x – 4) = 0
x + 1 = 0 or x – 4 = 0
x₁ = 0, x₂ = –1 or x₃ = 4
Numerical functions
2.2. Domain and range
Definitions:
• The domain of a function is the set of all values (of x) that
can be plugged into a function and have the function exist
and have a real number for a value.
Note: Avoid division by zero, square roots of negative
numbers, logarithms of zero and negative numbers.
The domain of a function is the set of all possible inputs
• The range of a function is simply the set of all possible
values (of y)that a function can take or the set of real
numbers available for output.
The range of a function is the set of all possible outputs.
(i)
.
Numerical functions (Cont’d)

Examples:
(i) 𝑓 (𝑥)=5 𝑥−3
This is an oblique line (slope is 5).
This is more generally a polynomial and we know
that we can plug any value into a polynomial and
so the domain in this case is all real numbers.
Domain: − ∞< 𝑥<+ ∞
It can take any value of y. The range is: ( − ∞ ,+ ∞ )
√
(ii) 𝑔(𝑡)= 4−7𝑡
• This is a square root and we know that square
roots are always positive or zero.
• And because we can have the square root of
zero, in this case:
4
√ 4
𝑔( )= 4 −7 ( ¿)= √ 0=0 ¿
7 7
Then the range will be: [ 0 , +∞ )
2
(iii) h(𝑥)=−2 𝑥 +12 𝑥+5
Here we have a quadratic which is a
polynomial and so we again know what that
the domain is all numbers. Domain: ( − ∞ ,+∞ )
• The graph is a parabola that opens down,
because the coefficient of x² is negative and
so the vertex will be the highest point on the
graph. I f we know the vertex then we can
know the range.
The vertex is: 𝑏 Δ 𝑏
𝑣=(− ,− =h(− ))
2𝑎 4𝑎 2𝑎
12
¿( , h (3))=(3,23)
2(−2)
(3, 23) is the highest point of the graph or the
largest value of the function and the parabola
will take all values less than this .So the range
is : ( − ∞ ,23 ]
2.3. Composition of functions

The composition of 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑔(𝑥) is.
( 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)( 𝑥)=¿
In other words compositions are evaluated by
plugging the second function listed into the
first function listed. Note as well that order is
important here. Interchanging the order will
usually result in a different answer.
𝑓 [𝑔 (𝑥 )] ≠ 𝑔 [ 𝑓 ( 𝑥 )]
Exercises
Given 𝑓 (𝑥)=3 𝑥 2 − 𝑥+10 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑔(𝑥)=1 −20 𝑥
find each of the following:
𝑎¿ ( 𝑓 ∘𝑔)( 5)
Solution
𝑎¿ ( 𝑓 ∘𝑔 )( 5 )=𝑓 [ 𝑔 (5 ) ]
𝑏¿ ( 𝑓 ∘𝑔 ) (𝑥)=𝑓 [ 𝑔 ( 𝑥) ]
𝑐¿ (𝑔 ∘𝑓 )(𝑥 )=𝑔 [ 𝑓(𝑥)]

From b and c we can conclude that
composition law is not commutative.
𝑑 ¿ ( 𝑔 ∘ 𝑔 ) ( 𝑥 ) =𝑔 [ 𝑔 (𝑥 ) ]
2.4. Inverse function

• A function f(x) is called one-to-one if no two
values of x produce the same y;
mathematically this is the same as saying 𝑓 (𝑥1 )≠ 𝑓 (𝑥 2)
whenever 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥 2
• So, a function is one-to-one if whenever we
plug different values into the function we get
different function values.
Examples
2
𝑓 (𝑥)=𝑥 +3 𝑔(𝑥 )=𝑥 +1
𝑓 (𝑥) is a one-to-one function 2≠3⇒ 𝑓 (2)=5≠ 𝑓 (3)=6
𝑔(𝑥) is not a one-to-one function: −2 ≠ 2
2
𝐵𝑢𝑡𝑔(−2)=(− 2) +1=5
.
Given two one-to-one functions f(x)and g(x), if
( 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)=𝑥𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑔∘ 𝑓 )(𝑥)=𝑥

Then we say that and are inverse of each other.
More specifically, we will say that g(x) is the inverse
of f(x) and denote it by 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
Likewise we could say also that f(x) is the inverse of
g(x) and denote it by 𝑓 (𝑥)=𝑔−1 (𝑥)
Note: −1 1
𝑓 (𝑥)≠
𝑓 (𝑥)
• The inverse function of f(x) is the function such

that
Finding the inverse of a function.
Given the function 𝑓 ( 𝑥)
1. First replace 𝑓 (𝑥)with y.
2. Interchange y with x everywhere.
3. Solve the equation for y.
−1
4. Replace y by 𝑓 (𝑥).In other words you’ve
managed to find the inverse at this point.
−1
Note: You can verify your work by checking ( 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 )=𝑥
−1 ❑
and (𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 )=𝑥
Examples
−1
a) Given 𝑓 (𝑥)=3𝑥− 2 , find 𝑓 ( 𝑥)
Solution
1¿𝑦=3𝑥−2
Verification
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 )(𝑥)=𝑓 [𝑓 (𝑥)] (𝑓 ∘𝑓 )(𝑥)=𝑓 [ 𝑓 (𝑥)]

−1 −1 −1 −1
b) 𝑔(𝑥 )=√ 𝑥 −3
Solution
1¿𝑦=√𝑥−3
Verification
(𝑔∘𝑔 )(𝑥)=𝑔[𝑔 (𝑥)] (𝑔 ∘𝑔)(𝑥)=𝑔 [𝑔(𝑥)]

−1 −1 −1 −1
c) 𝑥 +4
h( 𝑥)=
2𝑥−5
𝑥+4
Solution
1¿ 𝑦=
2 𝑥−5
Verification
(h∘h )(𝑥)=h [ h (𝑥)]

−1 −1
(h ∘h)(𝑥)=h [ h(𝑥)]
−1 −1
Exercise:
Note: The graph of the inverse is a reflection of the
actual function about the line 𝑦 =𝑥
𝑦=𝑥 +1𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑦=𝑥𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑦=√ 𝑥−1𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑦=𝑥
2
2.5. Logarithmic and exponential functions

2.5.1 .Brief history of Logarithms
• The invention of the common system of logarithms is
due to the combined effort of John Napier and Henry
Briggs in 1624.
• Currently, two kinds of logarithms are often used:
common (decimal or Briggian) logarithms and natural
(or Napierian) logarithms.
• Logarithms have applications in many fields such as
Statistics, Finance, Chemistry, Physics, Astronomy,
Computer science, Economics, Music, Engineering…
2.5.2. Definition and notations

The power to which a base of 10 must be raised to obtain a
number is called the common logarithm (log) of the number.
Example: 102 = 100, then log10100 = 2
(or simply log 100=2).
• Therefore, logarithms are nothing more than exponents.
• The power to which the base e
(e = 2.718281828459050) must be raised to obtain a
number is called the natural logarithm (ln or Log) of the
number.
• Example: e3.4012 = 30 or 2.71833.4012 = 30
Then ln 30 = 3.4012
The two most used logarithms are called
common logarithm and natural logarithm.
Common logarithms have a base of 10, and
natural logarithms have a base of e.
Number (x) Exponential expression Logarithm (log10 x)
1000 103 3
100 102 2
10 101 1
1 100 0
1/10 = 0.1 10-1 -1
1/100 = 0.01 10-2 -2
1/1000 = 0.001 10-3 -3
2.5.3. Definition of Exponential Function
The function:
+¿¿
𝑓 : 𝐼𝑅→ 𝐼 𝑅
is called exponential function with base b.
The exponential function with base e is also
called the natural exponential function.
Graphs
There are two important things to note:

• The y-intercept is at (0, 1), for, b0 = 1.
• The x-axis is a horizontal asymptote. When x is a
large negative number e.g. b−10,000, then y is a very
small positive number. Ex: 2(-10,000) = 0
or (1/ 2)10,000 = 0
What is the relationship between the graph of
y=ex and the graph of y = e−x?
y = e−x is the reflection about the y-axis of y = ex.
Graphs
2.5.4. Definition of Logarithmic Function
• The logarithmic function with base b is the function
y = logb x.
• b is normally a number greater than 1 (although it
needs only to be greater than 0 and not equal to 1).
The function is defined for all x > 0. Here is its graph
for any base b.
Graph of y = ln x and graph of y = ln (x − 2) which is

its translation 2 units to the right
Remarks
+¿¿ +¿→𝐼𝑅¿
exp𝑏❑𝑥:𝐼𝑅→𝐼 𝑅 log𝑏𝑥:𝐼 𝑅
Exponential function and logarithmic function are inverse

or reciprocal functions about the first bisector y=x.
2.5.5. Properties
Like all logarithms, the natural logarithm maps

multiplication into addition: ln (xy) = ln x + ln y
2.5.6. Logarithmic rules
Common Logarithm Natural Logarithm
log xy = log x + log y ln xy = ln x + ln y
log 1/x= -log x ln 1/x = -ln x
log x/y = log x - log y ln x/y = ln x - ln y

log xy = y log x ln xy = y ln x
log x1/y = (1/y )log x ln x1/y =(1/y)ln x

}
𝑥 ln 𝑥
¿ln❑𝑒 =𝑥=𝑒
ln 𝑥 ln 𝑦 ln 𝑥+ln 𝑦 ln ( 𝑥∗ 𝑦 )
1. ¿ ln❑𝑒 =𝑦=𝑒 ⇔ 𝑥∗ 𝑦=𝑒 ∗𝑒 =𝑒
𝑦 ln 𝑦
=𝑒
ln ( 𝑥 ∗𝑦 )
¿𝑥∗ 𝑦=𝑒
2. ln 1=0
𝑥 1
( ) 1
3.ln =ln❑ 𝑥 ∗ =ln❑𝑥+ln❑ =0⇒ln❑𝑥−ln❑𝑦
𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
3 1
4.ln 𝑥 =ln (𝑥 ∗𝑥∗𝑥 )=ln 𝑥+ln 𝑥+ln 𝑥=3ln 𝑥 𝑦 1

5. ln √ 𝑥=ln 𝑥 = ln 𝑥
𝑦
𝑦
2.5.7. Change of base

To find a logarithm with base b, using any other
base b
=
x
Exponential and logarithmic equations

2.5.8. Solving exponential and logarithmic equations
2.8.7.1. Exponential equations
To solve an exponential equation, take the log of
both sides, and solve for the variable.
Example 1: Solve for x in the equation:
Solution:
Step 1: Take the natural log of both sides:
Step 2: Simplify the left side of the above equation
using Logarithmic Rule : x
Exponential and logarithmic equations (Cont’d)
Step 3: Simplify the left side of the above
equation: Since ln (e)=1, the equation
becomes
is the exact answer and x = 4.38202663467 is an

approximate answer because we have
rounded the value of ln 80.
Check: Check your answer in the original
equation.
𝑥 +5
Example 2: Solve for x in the equation: 1 0 − 8=60
Solution:
Step 1: Isolate the exponential term before you
take the common log of both sides. Therefore,
add 8 to both sides:
Step 2: Take the common log of both sides:
Step 3: Simplify the left side of the above equation

using Logarithmic Rule:
equation: Since log (10) = 1, the above
equation can be written
Step 5: Subtract 5 from both sides of the above
equation: is the exact answer;
x = -3.16749108729 is an approximate
answer...
Check: Check your answer in the original
equation. Does
Yes it does.
Example 3: Solve for x in the equation
Solution:
Step 1: When you graph the left side of the
equation, you will note that the graph crosses
the x-axis in two places. This means the
equation has two real solutions.
Step 2: Rewrite the equation in quadratic form:
Step 3: Factor the left side of the equation:
can now be written
Step 4: Solve for x. Note: The product of two

terms can only equal zero if one or both of the
two terms is zero.
Step 5: Set the first factor equal to zero and
solve for x: If 𝑒 𝑥 − 2=0 then, and
and x= ln (2) is the exact answer or
is an approximate answer.
Step 6: Set the second factor equal to zero and
𝑥
solve for x: If − 3=0 then,
𝑒 and
= and x= ln (3) is the exact
answer or is an
approximate answer. The exact answers are:
ln (3) and ln (2) and the approximate answers
are 0.69314718056 and 1.09861228867.
Check: These two numbers should be the same
numbers where the graph crosses the x-axis.
Exercises
a).-32=0
2.5.9.Logarithmic equations
To solve a logarithmic equation, rewrite the equation
in exponential form and solve for the variable.
Example 1: Solve for x in the equation ln(x) =8
Solution:
Step 1: Let both sides be exponents of the base e.
The equation ln(x) =8, can be rewritten.
Step 2: By now you should know that when the base
of the exponent and the base of the logarithm are
the same, the left side can be written x.
The equation can now be written
Step 3: The exact answer is
And the approximate answer is
Check: You can check your answer
ln (2,980.95798704) = 8, you are correct.
Example 2: Solve for x in the equation:
Solution:
Step 1: Isolate the logarithmic term before you
convert the logarithmic equation to an
exponential equation. Divide both sides of the
original equation by 7:
Step 2: Convert the logarithmic equation to an
exponential equation: If no base is indicated, it
means the base of the logarithm is 10. Recall also
that logarithms are exponents, so the exponent is
15/7.
The equation can now be written
Step 3: Divide both sides of the above equation by 3:

Example 3: Solve for x in the equation
Step 1: Note the first term is valid only when

x > 3; the term is valid only when
x > 2; and the term is valid only when
x > -12.
If we require that x be any real number greater than
3, all three terms will be valid. If all three terms are
valid, then the equation is valid.
Step 2: Simplify the left side of the above equation.
By the properties of logarithms, we know that
Step 3: The equation can now be written
Step 4: Let each side of the above equation be

the exponent of the base e:
Step 5: Simplify the above equation:

equation:
Step 7: Subtract 2x + 24 from each side:
Step 8: Factor the left side of the above equation:
Step 9: If the product of two factors equals zero, at least

one of the factor has to be zero.
x = 9 is our only solution.

Why is 9 the only solution? We defined our domain to be
all the real numbers greater than 3.
Check: You can check your answer by plugging 9 in
Rmk: To solve a logarithmic equation;

• State the validity of terms
• Solve for the variable by using different properties
• State the set of solutions
• N.B:
Exercises
a)-
b)-
Exercises (cont’d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
Exponential and logarithmic functions
2.5.10. Applications of exponential and logarithmic functions
There are so many uses for these mathematical functions.
• In economics, exponential functions are important when looking
at growth or decay. Examples are the value of an investment that
increases by a constant percentage each period , sales of a
company that increase at a constant percentage each period,
models of economic growth or models of the spread of an
epidemic. Bacteria growth and spread of a virus is an exponential
function. As there are more and more bacteria their rate of
growth increases.
• In the stock market, growth of a portfolio could be an exponential
function. It isn't likely but theoretically if you invest each year and
the money grows at a certain rate you can use exponential
function to estimate what you'll have at some future time.
Exponential and logarithmic functions (Cont’d)
Game: The value of x increases and the value of y increases or
decreases more and more rapidly.
• Logarithmic functions are used in sounds. Decibels are a logarithmic

scale to quantify loudness. The best thing about exponential
functions is that they are so useful in real world situations.
• Exponential functions are used to model populations, carbon date
artifacts, help coroners determine time of death, compute
investments, as well as many other applications.
We discuss about four of the most common applications:
population growth, exponential decay, compound interest and
amortization.
1. Population
The differential equation with
is the equation that governs the population model
• Pt represents the population after a certain amount of time

• Po represents the initial population or the population at the
beginning (time zero); e = 2.718281828459050
• k represents the growth (or decay) rate
• t represents the amount of time elapsed
Example:
The population of a city is , where
t = 0 represents the population in the year 2000.
a. Find the population of the city in the year 2010.
To find the population in the year 2010, we need
to let t = 10 in our given equation.
P = 250,342 e0.0¹²*¹0= 250,342 e 0.0¹² = 282,259.82
Since we are dealing with the population of a city,
we normally round to a whole number, in this case
282,260 people.
b. Find the population of the city in the year 2015.
To find the population in the year 2015, we need
to let t = 15. P = 250,342 e0.0¹²*¹⁵ = 250,342 e0.¹⁸
= 299,713.8
We‘ll round this answer to 299,714 people.
c. Find when the population will be 320,000.
The equation we need to solve is
So it will take between 20 and 21 years for the

population to reach 320,000. This means between the
years 2020 and 2021 the population will be 320,000.
A scientist starts with 100 bacteria in an
experiment. After 5 days, she discovers that the
population has grown to 350.
a. Determine an equation for this bacteria
population.
b. Use the equation to find out the population
after 15 days.
We will substitute the value of 15 for t in
or approximately 4288 bacteria after 15 days.

c. Use the equation to find out when the
population is 1000.
We will set our equation equal to 1000
and solve.
So between 9 and 10 days, the bacteria

population will be 1000.
2. Exponential decay
Solving an exponential decay problem is very
similar to working with population growth. In
fact, certain populations may decrease instead
of increase and we could still use the general
formula we used for growth. But in the case of
decrease or decay, the value of k will be
negative.
The number of milligrams of a drug in a person‘s
system after t hours is given by the function
a. Find the amount of the drug after 2 hours.

To solve the problem we let t = 2 in the original
equation.
After 2 hours, 8.987 milligrams of the drug are left

in the system.
b. Find the amount of the drug after 5 hours.
Replace t with 5 in the equation to get
After 5 hours, 2.707 milligrams remain in the body.

c. When will the amount of the drug be 0.1 milligram
(or almost completely gone from the system)?
We need to let D = 0.1 and solve the equation
• After approximately 13 hours and 15 minutes, the

amount of the drug will be almost gone with only
0.1 milligrams remaining in the body.
3. Compound interest: Interest rate word problems

Rate: 10% Simple interest Compound interest
Capital Annual interest Capital Annual interest
1st year 1200 1200*(10/100)=120 1200 1200*(10/100)=120
2nd year 1200 1200*(10/100)=120 1320 1320*(10/100)=132

3rd year 1200 1200*(10/100)=120 1452 1452*(10/100)=145.2
4th year 1200 1200*(10/100)=120 1597.2 1597.2*(10/100)=159.72
5th year 1200 1200*(10/100)=120 1756.92 1756.92*(10/100)=175.692
Total 1800 600 1932.612 732.612

Compound interest
Compound interest is the addition of interest to the
principal sum of a loan or deposit, or in other
words, interest on interest. It is the result of
reinvesting interest, rather than paying it out, so
that interest in the next period is then earned on
the principal sum plus previously
accumulated interest.
In short, interest is capitalized, that is added to
the principal in order to make interest in the next
period.
Specifically, simple interest is only paid on principal,
while compound interest is paid on the principal
plus all of the interest that has previously been
earned.
The formula for interest that is compounded is:
• A represents the amount of money after a certain amount of time (Accumulated amount
or Accrued amount; FV: Future Value)
• P represents the principal or the amount of money you start with: deposit (PV: Present
Value)
• r represents the interest rate and is always represented as a decimal
• t represents the amount of time elapsed in years (term of the contract)
• n is the number of times interest is compounded in one year (number of compounding
periods)
If interest is compounded semi-annually then n = 2
If interest is compounded quarterly then n = 4
If interest is compounded monthly then n = 12
If interest is compounded weekly then n=52
If interest is compounded daily then n = 360
Examples
1. Suppose your parents invest $1000 in a savings
account for college at the time you are born. The
average interest rate is 4% and is compounded quarterly
i,e. interest realized within 3 months is added to the
previous principal. How much money will be in the
college account when you are 18 years old?
and let P = 1000, r = 0.04, n = 4 and t = 18.

We will use our formula
2. Suppose your parents had invested that same

$1000 in a money market account that averages
8% interest compounded monthly. How much
would you have for college after 18 years?
P=1000,r=0.08,n=12and t=18
Continuously Compounded Interest
• A is equal to the final amount of money in the account after

t, the number of years; the amount is growing in value. The
annual interest rate is represented by r, and the original
amount of money in the account is shown with P (bank
deposit or principal).
• Continuous compounding will generate the most interest of
any type of compounding because of the use of constant e.
Continuously Compounded Interest (Cont’d)
• If you invest $500 at an annual interest rate of 10%
compounded continuously, calculate the final
amount you will have in the account after five
years.
• The equation for continuously

compound interest is used in finance to
calculate how long it will take a bank
deposit at a set interest rate to reach a
specified higher amount.
Let's take an example of a saver who puts $2,000 into an
account at a yearly compounded interest rate of 4.1% and
wants to know how long it will take before the account grows to
$4,000.
Solving this equation becomes simple with natural logarithm.
.
.
Now, consulting a natural log table or using a
natural log function on a calculator, we learn
that ln 2 = 0.69314718
0.69314718= 0.041*t
t = 16.9
So it would take 16.9 (about 17) years for the
investment to double.
Practice exercises
1. An account earning 6.6% interest compounded
continuously for 10 years would a balance of how much if
the principal was $550.0?
2. What was the principal for a continuously compounded
account earning 3.9% for 15 years that now has balance of
$2,500,000.
3. A teenager saved small dollar amounts throught the
school year and now has $712.00. They can choose from
two bank offers. The first is 5.3% compounded
continuously for 6 years. The 2nd is compounded quarterly
for 5 years at 6.0%. Which account will yield the most
money? What is the dollar amount difference between
the accounts at the end of their terms?
Future Values and compounding (single payments)
Compounding is the process of converting values of
the present to values of the future. We begin with
present value.
The general expression for any future value is
FVn = PV (1+r)ⁿ. This is an exponential function of
the form y = a.bⁿ
where PV = a and (1 + r) = b
In this expression the future value is determined by
the value of r, the interest rate, and n, the time
period.
Financial tables have been constructed for many
possible values of r and n. The expression, (1+r)ⁿ, is
known as the future value interest factor for a
single payment, FVIFr,n where r is the interest rate
and n is the number of periods.
Future value interest factor of $1 per period at i% for n periods, FVIF(i, n).
n 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 10% 11% 12%
1 1.0100 1.0200 1.0300 1.0400 1.0500 1.0600 1.0700 1.0800 1.0900 1.1000 1.1100 1.1200
2 1.0201 1.0404 1.0609 1.0816 1.1025 1.1236 1.1449 1.1664 1.1881 1.2100 1.2321 1.2544
3 1.0303 1.0612 1.0927 1.1249 1.1576 1.1910 1.2250 1.2597 1.2950 1.3310 1.3676 1.4049
4 1.0406 1.0824 1.1255 1.1699 1.2155 1.2625 1.3108 1.3605 1.4116 1.4641 1.5181 1.5735
5 1.0510 1.1041 1.1593 1.2167 1.2763 1.3382 1.4026 1.4693 1.5386 1.6105 1.6851 1.7623
6 1.0615 1.1262 1.1941 1.2653 1.3401 1.4185 1.5007 1.5869 1.6771 1.7716 1.8704 1.9738
7 1.0721 1.1487 1.2299 1.3159 1.4071 1.5036 1.6058 1.7138 1.8280 1.9487 2.0762 2.2107
8 1.0829 1.1717 1.2668 1.3686 1.4775 1.5938 1.7182 1.8509 1.9926 2.1436 2.3045 2.4760
9 1.0937 1.1951 1.3048 1.4233 1.5513 1.6895 1.8385 1.9990 2.1719 2.3579 2.5580 2.7731
10 1.1046 1.2190 1.3439 1.4802 1.6289 1.7908 1.9672 2.1589 2.3674 2.5937 2.8394 3.1058
11 1.1157 1.2434 1.3842 1.5395 1.7103 1.8983 2.1049 2.3316 2.5804 2.8531 3.1518 3.4785
12 1.1268 1.2682 1.4258 1.6010 1.7959 2.0122 2.2522 2.5182 2.8127 3.1384 3.4985 3.8960
13 1.1381 1.2936 1.4685 1.6651 1.8856 2.1329 2.4098 2.7196 3.0658 3.4523 3.8833 4.3635
14 1.1495 1.3195 1.5126 1.7317 1.9799 2.2609 2.5785 2.9372 3.3417 3.7975 4.3104 4.8871
Examples
1. Deposit ₤100 and leave it for twelve
periods in an account which earns 4 percent
per period. How much will be in the account
at the end of twelve periods?
• FV12 =?
• FV12 = 100 (1.04)¹²
• FV12 = 100 (1.6010)
• FV12 = ₤ 160.10
2. Invest €2,000 in stock whose expected annual
rate of return is 8 percent. How much will you
have at the end of ten years?
FV10 =?
FV10 = 2,000 (1.08)¹⁰
FV10 = 2,000 (2.1589)
FV10 = € 4,317.80
Present Values and discounting (single payments)
Discounting is the process of converting expected
future values to present values. We begin with a
future value.
FVn = PV (1+r)ⁿ
PV = FV (PVIFn,r)
Example
A financial instrument is expected pay 5,000 in
ten years. The interest rate available today is 10
percent. What would be a fair price for the claim
to receive that 5,000 in ten years?
PV =?
; (1/2.5937)=0.3855
PV = 5,000 *(.3855) → PV = 1927.50

4. Amortization problems
There is a relationship between the mortgage amount, the
number of payments, the amount of the payment, how often
the payment is made, and the interest rate.
where P = the payment, r = the annual rate,

M = the mortgage amount, t = the number of years, and n =
the number of payments per year.
Note: A mortgage is usually a loan sanctioned against an
immovable asset like a house, a land or a commercial
property. The lender keeps the asset as collateral until the
borrower repays the total loan amount.
Example
What is the monthly payment on a mortgage of
$75,000 with an 8% interest rate that runs for 20
years?
Solution:
In the equation above, substitute $75,000 for M
(the mortgage amount), 8% for r (the annual
interest rate), 20 for t (the number of years), and
12 for n (the number of payments per year. You
are solving for P (the monthly payment for the 20
years)
0.08∗75000 6000
𝑃= :12= :12
( )
−12∗ 20 −240
0.08 1− ( 1+0.0066666667 )
1− 1+
12
• The monthly payment will be $627.33. After
20 years of payments, you will have paid
20x12x$627.33=$150,559.20
• Everything over the initial $75,000 is interest.
Therefore, after 20 years, you will have paid
$150.559-$75,000=$75,559.20 in interest.
The formula used to calculate the time is:
CHAPTER 3: LIMIT, CONTINUITY AND SEQUENCES
3.1. Concept of limit

In Mathematics, a limit is the value that a
function or sequence "approaches" as the input
or index approaches some value.
The limit of f(x) when x tends to x₀ exists and is
equal to L if we can make the values of f(x)
arbitrarily closer to L (as closer we want).
N.B: When the computation of a limit leads to
infinity, this means that the limit does not exist.
Limits (Cont’d)
y
5
--------------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
As or as x gets larger, f(x) gets closer

to 5
Notation :
In general:
lim ❑ 𝑓 (𝑥)= 𝐿
Limits (Cont’d)
Strategy for finding limits
(i) If f(x) is defined at x0 and if f(x) has a limit when x
tends to x0 , the limit can be evaluated by direct
substitution.
when L ϵ ]-∞ , +∞[
Examples:
Limits (Cont’d)
2 𝑥+1 2∗0+1 1
2¿lim ❑ = = =1
𝑥 →0 𝑥+1 𝑥+1 1
(ii) If the limit of f(x) as 𝑥→𝑥 0 cannot be evaluated
by direct substitution, try to find g(x) that agrees
with f(x)for all x other than x0 and then choose g(x)
so that the limit of g(x) can be evaluated by direct
substitution.
lim ❑ 𝑓 (𝑥)= lim 𝑔(𝑥)=𝑔(𝑥0 )
𝑥 → 𝑥0 𝑥 → 𝑥0
Example: lim 𝑥 2
− 4 (𝑥−2)(𝑥+2)
=lim =lim ❑ 𝑥+2=4
𝑥 → 2 𝑥− 2 𝑥 → 2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2
Limits (Cont’d)
3.2 Properties of limits

Assume k is a real number and that lim 𝑓 (𝑥) and
𝑥 →𝑥 0
lim 𝑔(𝑥) . Then:
𝑥 →𝑥 0
(𝑖) lim ❑𝑥=𝑥 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim ❑ 𝑥𝑛 =𝑥𝑛0
𝑥 → 𝑥0 𝑥 → 𝑥0
(𝑖𝑖) lim ❑𝑘=𝑘 constant

𝑥→ 𝑥 0
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) lim ❑𝑘𝑓 (𝑥)=𝑘 lim 𝑓 (𝑥) scalar multiple
𝑥→ 𝑥 0 𝑥 → 𝑥0
(𝑖𝑣) lim ❑ [ 𝑓 (𝑥)± 𝑔(𝑥)]= lim 𝑓 (𝑥)± lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥 → 𝑥0 𝑥→ 𝑥 0 𝑥→ 𝑥 0
sum or difference
Limits (Cont’d)
(𝑣) lim ❑ [ 𝑓 (𝑥).𝑔(𝑥)]= lim 𝑓 (𝑥). lim 𝑔(𝑥) Product
𝑥 → 𝑥0 𝑥 → 𝑥0 𝑥 → 𝑥0
lim 𝑓 (𝑥)
(𝑣𝑖) lim ❑
𝑥→ 𝑥
0
[ ]
𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑥 → 𝑥
= 0
𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→ 𝑥 0
,𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 lim ❑𝑔(𝑥)≠ 0
𝑥→𝑥 0
Quotient
[ ]
𝑛 𝑛
(𝑣𝑖𝑖)lim ❑ [ 𝑓 (𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ;𝑛∈𝐼𝑅𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0
Limits (Cont’d)
3.3 Indeterminate forms.
One says that there is an indeterminate form
(indetermination) of limits when the computing of
limits by direct substitution gives following cases:
0 ±∞ ∞ 0 0 0
; ; 1 ;+ ∞ − ∞ ; 0 ; 0 ∗ ∞ ; ; ∞
0 ±∞ ∞
Those values are not really known. They are
indeterminate.
Then one searches for the g(x)that agrees with f(x)
for all x other x0 and g(x) is chosen such that it can be
evaluated by direct substitution.
Limits (Cont’d)
Examples 0
𝐼.𝐹:
0
2
𝑥 +𝑥−6 4+2−6 0
1.lim ❑ 2 = =
𝑥→2 𝑥 −𝑥−2 4−2−2 0
2.lim ❑ √ 𝑥+1−2 2− 2 0
= =
𝑥 →3 𝑥− 3 3− 3 0
Limits (Cont’d)
Exercises
Compute:
2 2
𝑥 −1 𝑥 +𝑥−1
1.lim ❑ 9. lim ❑ 2
𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥−3𝑥 +4
Continuity
3.4 Concept of continuity

a) Definitions
-A function is said to be continuous on an open
interval if and only if it is continuous at every
point in this interval.
-A function is continuous on an interval if we can
draw its graph from start to finish without ever
once picking up our pencil.
In other words, a function is continuous if its
graph has no holes or breaks in it.
Continuity (Cont’d)
• The graph has two discontinuities since they are only

two places where we would have to pick up our pencil in
sketching it.
• For many functions it’s easy to determine where it won’t
be continuous. Functions won’t be continuous where we
have things like division by zero or logarithms of zero.
Definition
• We say that a function f is continuous at a number
a in its domain if and only if
• Note that this definition requires three conditions

to be available:
exists and exists
and
A function that does not satisfy any of these
conditions at any point is said to be discontinuous
at that point.
Example 4𝑡 +10
h(𝑡)= 2
𝑡 − 2𝑡 − 15
Rational functions are continuous everywhere
except where we have division by zero. So all that
we need is to determine where the denominator is
zero. Setting the denominator equal to zero and
solving, we get
2
𝑡 −2𝑡 −15=(𝑡 −5)(𝑡+3)=0 . Then, 𝑡=5𝑜𝑟𝑡=− 3
Thus, the function is discontinuous at t=-3 and t=5.
N.B: The continuity of a function becomes

obvious from its graph
Discontinuous: as f(x) is not defined at x = c

Discontinuous: as f(x) has a gap at x = c.

Discontinuous: not defined at x = c.

Function has different functional and limiting

values at x =c.
• f(x) is undefined at c
• The limx → c f(x) does not exist.
• Values of f(x) and the values of the limit differ
at the point c
b) Properties
Intermediate value theorem
• If the real-valued function y = f(x), is
continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and w
is some number between f(a) and f(b), then
there must be at least one value c within [a, b]
such that f(c) = w
• In other words the function y = f(x) at some
point must be w = f(c)
Graphic x: time; y: amount of money

• For example, if an amount of money in a bank

grows from 2 million to 8 million between the
time of one and fifteen years, then, at some
time between one and fifteen years, the
amount of money must have been 5 million.
• As a consequence, if f is continuous on [a, b]
and f(a) and f(b) differ in sign, then, at some
point c in [a, b], f(c) must equal zero.
For any continuous function, each output has
its corresponding input between the bounds.
Extreme value theorem

• The extreme value theorem states that if a function f is
defined on a closed interval [a, b] (or any closed and
bounded set) and is continuous there, then the function
attains its maximum, i.e. there exists c ∈ [a, b] with f(c) ≥
f(x) for all x ∈ [a, b]. The same is true of the minimum of
f. These statements are not, in general, true if the
function is defined on an open interval (a, b) (or any set
that is not both closed and bounded), as, for example,
the continuous function f(x) = 1/x, defined on the open
interval (0,1), does not attain a maximum, being
unbounded above.
For any continuous function, there is a top or/and a
bottom.
Graph of sin(x) and cos (x) on [- 2π, 2π]

Examples
1. f(x) = x2 - 2x + 1
limx → c f(x) = limx → c (x2 - 2x + 1)
f(x) = c2 - 2c + 1
f(x) = f(c)
So, f is continuous at x = c
2.
-f(x) is discontinuous at x = 2 because f(2) is undefined

By definition of g; g(2) = 3
limx → 2 g(x) = limx → 2 (x2 - 4)/(x - 2) = limx → 2 (x + 2) = 4
g(x) is discontinuous because
limx → 2 g(x) ≠ g(2)
Exercise
Examine the continuity of the function at x=-5
Sequences
3.5. Progressions or Sequences
3.5.1. Brief history
• Since the first day a human being made a drawing on a cave
wall trying to visualize how the hunt went, or should go, there
have been sequences. It is just a way of telling a story. It has
been implemented in all cultures.
• So a sequence can be a movement in time or space modeled
by a camera with a suggestion of unity between the images.
• Perhaps the most well known photographer making use of
photographic sequences is Muybridge. To have a better
understanding of the movement of humans and animals he
photographed them in a very short time laps as for example
ten pictures in one second. The result looks like a filmstrip.
Sequences (Cont’d)
3.5.2. Basic Definitions

A set of numbers arranged in a definite order
according to some definite rule is called a
sequence. A sequence is a function whose domain
is the set IN of natural numbers.
Example: The most famous Fibonacci sequence is a
series of numbers in which each succeeding number
(after the second) is the sum of the previous two.
Fibonacci sequence is 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34,
55, 89....
Notation:
n is the position of the term xn
Definition (Range): Consider the sequence
The tabular form and the set builder form are:

The set
is called the range of the sequence. Example of a
sequence where the range has no order:
The range is
Consider the sequence

It is clear that we have
The numbers are getting bigger and bigger.
Now consider the sequence
In this case, we have
Notice that the numbers are getting smaller and
smaller.
Consider the sequence
We have:
In fact: 2505.21 < 2755.73

The tenth number is bigger than the eleventh.
Examples:
1) 2, 4, 6, 8... 2n: is a sequence of even numbers
2) 1, 3,5,7,9... 2n+1: is a sequence of odd numbers.
3) 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 ,... , 1 : is a harmonic sequence
2 3 4 𝑛
Recursive Formula
A recursive formula always uses the preceding term
to define the next term of the sequence.
Two stages are involved:
*Initialization of the sequence: one gives the initial

term denoted by or
It is an initial condition that tells where the
sequence starts.
*Transmission: each term is defined from its
predecessor.
Example:
Consider the sequence defined by its initial term
the recursive relation is calculate step by step: , , ,
𝑥0 =1
3.5.3. Monotonic sequence

Definitions: Consider the sequence
We will say that is :
• increasing, if and only if, for any , or
• decreasing, if and only if, for any
If one of these properties holds, we say that the

sequence is monotonic.
Example 1
Check that the sequence {2𝑛 }𝑛≥1 is increasing.
Answer:
Let 𝑛 ≥1 .
We have .
Since 2 > 1, then 1. 2𝑛 <2. 2𝑛 , which gives 2𝑛 <2 𝑛+1
Then, the sequence is increasing.
Example 2: Check that the sequence { 1 } is

𝑛
decreasing.
𝑛≥1
Answer:
Let 𝑛≥1 . We have n < n+1. Therefore,
1 1
holds or >
𝑛 𝑛+1
The sequence is decreasing.

Method for determining the monotony of a sequence.

If 𝑥𝑛+1 −𝑥 𝑛 <0 , then the sequence is decreasing
If 𝑥𝑛+1 −𝑥 𝑛 >0 , then the sequence is increasing
We will say that { 𝑥𝑛 }𝑛≥ 1 is bounded above, if and only
if, there exists a number M, such that 𝑥𝑛 ≤ 𝑀 ,for any
𝑛≥1 . The number M is called an upper-bound.
Furthermore, we will say that it is bounded below, if
and only if, there exists a number m such that , for
𝑛≥1 any . The number m is called a lower-bound.
If both of these properties hold, we say that the
sequence is bounded (in short bd).
Example 1: The sequence {2𝑛 }𝑛≥1 is bounded
below by 2 (because it is positive). It is not
bounded above.
Example 2: The sequence { 1 } is bounded.
𝑛
Indeed, we have for any 𝑛≥1 ,
𝑛≥1
Therefore, 1 is a lower-bound and 0 is an

upper-bound.
Exercises
Determine whether the following sequences
are monotonic:
𝑛
{ 𝑥𝑛 }𝑛 ≥ 1 𝑤𝑖𝑡h 𝑥 𝑛= 1+𝑛
3
{ 𝑥𝑛 }𝑛 ≥ 1 𝑤𝑖𝑡h 𝑥 𝑛= 𝑛 +2
2 𝑛+1
{ 𝑥𝑛 }𝑛≥ 1 𝑤𝑖𝑡h 𝑥 𝑛= 𝑛+2
3.5.4. Limit of a Sequence

Consider a sequence of numbers { 𝑥𝑛 }𝑛≥ 1 .
Sometimes the numbers get closer and closer
to a number L (we will write 𝑥𝑛 ≈ 𝐿).
And sometimes the numbers do not exhibit
such behavior. If it does, we say that the
sequence { 𝑥𝑛 }𝑛≥ 1 is convergent and has a limit
equal to L. We will write
or
It may happen that we will say n gets larger to

express that . If a sequence is not convergent, it is
called divergent
lim ¿𝑛→+∞ 𝑥 𝑛=+∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim ¿𝑛→+ ∞ 𝑥 𝑛 =− ∞ ¿¿
Summary
• If a sequence has a limit, we say the sequence is
convergent, and that the sequence converges to
the limit. Otherwise, the sequence is divergent.
• A null sequence is a sequence that converges to 0.
Example:
2
𝑛 −3 𝑛+2
The sequence { 𝑥 }
𝑛 𝑛≥ 1 𝑤𝑖𝑡
𝑛 h 𝑥 = 2
𝑛
is convergent
𝑛 2 − 3𝑛+2
because lim ¿𝑥 → ∞ ❑ 2 =1¿
𝑛
Properties
1¿lim ¿𝑛→∞(𝑎𝑛+𝑏𝑛)=lim ¿𝑛→∞𝑎𝑛+lim ¿𝑛→∞𝑏𝑛¿¿

N.B: The computation of the limit of

a sequence is done like the
computation of limit of a function.
The difference is that the argument
x used in function is replaced by n
(a natural number) in sequence.
3.5.5. Arithmetic and geometric sequences

3.5.5.1. Arithmetic sequence
a) Definition
An arithmetic sequence or an arithmetic
progression (A.P.) is a sequence, in which the
difference between any two consecutive
terms is the same. This difference is a constant
or fixed number called common difference (d).
b) Determination of the nth term

Consider a sequence with 𝑥1 the initial term
and d the common difference.
Express with 𝑥1
𝑥2 =𝑥1 +𝑑
Then the nth term of an arithmetic sequence is

calculated as follow: 𝑥𝑛 =𝑥1 + ( 𝑛 −1 ) 𝑑
c) Sum of first n terms (or partial sum of n terms)
The sum of the n first terms of an arithmetic
sequence is calculated as follow:
𝑛 ( 𝑥 1+ 𝑥 𝑛 )
𝑠𝑛=
2
Example:
• Consider a sequence with 1 as the initial term and
d=1/2, calculate the 6th term and deduct the value
of S6
Solution
6 ( 𝑥 1+𝑥 6 )
𝑥6=𝑥1+5𝑑 𝑆 6=
2
d) Inserting n arithmetic terms between 2 extreme
terms a and b
Consider a sequence with a and b as extreme
terms (i.e. a is the initial term and b is the last
one). 𝑏=𝑎+ ( 𝑛 − 1 ) 𝑑 ⇒ 𝑑= 𝑏 −𝑎
𝑛 −1
Inserting n arithmetic terms between a and b may
request computing d (a, b)
Example:
Insert 5 arithmetic terms between 3 and 33
Solution:
n=5 arithmetic terms+2 extreme terms = 7
𝑏 − 𝑎 33 − 3 30
𝑑= = = =5
𝑛 −1 7−1 6
Therefore, we get the sequence: 3 8 13 18 23 28 33
3.5.5.2. Geometric sequence
a) Definition
In mathematics, a geometric progression (G.P), also
known as a geometric sequence, is a sequence of
numbers where each term after the first is found by
multiplying the previous one by a fixed non-zero number
called the common ratio(r)
For example, the sequence 2, 6, 18, 54 ... is a geometric
progression with common ratio 3. Similarly 10, 5, 2.5, 1.25
... is a geometric sequence with common ratio 1/2.
Thus, the general form of a geometric sequence is
b) Determination of the nth term

The formula for the general term for each
geometric sequence is...
an is the nth term of the sequence, a1 is the first
term in the sequence, r is the common ratio for the
geometric sequence; n is treated like the variable in
a sequence.
c) Product of first n terms
The product of the n first terms of a geometric
√
sequence is calculated as follow: 𝑷 𝒏 = ( 𝒂𝟏 ∗ 𝒂 𝒏 )
𝒏
Example
Consider 𝑎1=2 .Find the product of the first 3
terms of the geometric sequence if 𝑟 =3
Solution
𝑃 3= √ ( 2∗ 18 ) =216
2
3
𝑎3=2∗ 3 =18
d) Sum of first n terms of a geometric
sequence.
The formula is
Example
Find the sum of the first 4 terms of the following
sequence:
.
.
e) Inserting n geometric terms between 2 extreme
terms a and b
Consider a sequence with a and b as extreme terms
(i.e. a is the initial term and b is the last one).
𝑏
𝑛− 1 𝑛−1
𝑏=𝑎∗𝑟 ⇒𝑟 =
𝑎
Therefore inserting m geometric terms may request to
compute 𝑟 ( 𝑎, 𝑏 )
Example: Insert 3 geometric terms between 6 and 96.
Solution: a=6, b =96
• n=m+2=3geometric terms+2extreme terms=5
𝑟=
√
5 −1 96 4
6
=√ 16=2
• Hence we get the geometric sequence: 6 12 24 48 96
3.5.6.Application
Problem 1
An object is dropped from an aircraft. During
the 1st second, the object falls 4.9 m. During the
2nd second, it falls 14.7 m. During the 3rd
second, it falls 24.5 m. During the 4th second, it
falls 34.3 meters. If this pattern continues, how
far will the object fall during the 10th second?
Find the total distance the object will fall after
10 seconds.
Solution
x₁ = 4.9
xn = x1+ (n-1) d
x10= 4.9+ (10-1) *9.8
x10= 93.1 m
Problem 2
You complain that the hot tub (boiler) in your hotel suite
is not hot enough to heat up water. The hotel tells you
that they will increase the temperature by 10% each
hour. If the current temperature of the hot tub is 75º F,
what will be the temperature of the hot tub after 3
hours, to the nearest tenth of a degree?
Solution
*Starting temperature is 75º.
If the temperature is increased by 10%, the new
temperature will be 110% of the original temperature.
The common ratio will be 1.10. There are 4 terms.
*75, after 1 hour, after 2 hours, after 3 hours (4 terms)
Here are a few more examples of applications:

• the amount of money in your bank if you
deposit the same amount each week (a bank
account with regular deposits leads you to
arithmetico-geometric sequences) ;
• the size of a population in exponential growth,
or decay.
CHAPTER 4: DIFFERENTIATION (DERIVATIVES) AND APPLICATIONS
4.1. Definitions
A function f(x) is called differentiable at a if f’(x)
exists and f(x)is differentiable on an interval I if
the derivative exists for each point in that
interval.
The derivative of f(x) with respect to x is the
function f’(x) and is defined as :
′ 𝒇 ( 𝒙 + 𝒉)− 𝒇 ( 𝒙 )
𝒇 ( 𝒙 )=𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒉→ 𝟎 𝒉
This is the first principle of the derivative.

Derivatives (Cont’d)
Example:
Find the derivative of
′ 𝑓 ( 𝑥+h ) −𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) ∆𝑦
𝑓 ( 𝑥 )= lim 𝑜𝑟 lim
h→0 ( 𝑥+h ) −𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
Note: Evaluate the derivative at:
Example:
4.2. Alternate notations (Lagrange’s notation, Leibniz and Newton’s notation)
Given y = f(x) all of the following are equivalent and represent the derivative of f(x)
with respect to x.
Lagrange’s notation: use of a prime mark
First derivative and higher derivatives: f’(x), f’’(x), f’’’(x), ….
(Prime notation or typical notation: f’(x), y’)
Leibniz notation
𝑑𝑓 𝑑
= ( 𝑓 (𝑥))
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Newton’s notation:
Notation of evaluation of the derivative at x = a:

′ ′ 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑦
𝑓 (𝑎)= 𝑦 ¿𝑥=𝑎 = ¿ 𝑥=𝑎= ¿ 𝑥=𝑎
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Sometimes the argument is omitted and is written as index in order to simplify things
4.3. Geometrical interpretation
When h approaches zero, the point Q approaches point P. At

this time, the secant line begins to resemble the tangent to the
function f(x) at Point P, and thus the angle α tends to be β.
• The slope of a straight line is this number:
• It is the tangent:
• Let f be a function of a single variable defined
on an open interval. This function is
differentiable at the point a if it has a well-
defined tangent at a. Its derivative at a,
denoted f'(a), is the slope of this tangent.
• Precisely, consider “secant lines” like the one
from (a, f(a)) to (a + h, f(a + h)) in the figure.
• Such a line has slope (f(a + h) − f(a))/h. The
derivative of f at a is defined to be the limit, if
it exists, of this slope as h decreases to zero.
The gradient or slope of the tangent to the curve at a point

is equal to the derivative of the function at that point.
The tangent line problem
Essentially, the problem of finding the tangent line at a point P boils
down to the problem of finding the slope of the tangent line at P.
The equation of the tangent line is:
′
𝒚 − 𝒇 ( 𝒙 𝟎 )= 𝒇 ( 𝒙𝟎 )( 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )
4.4. Differentiation formulas (some basic derivatives)
If , then
If , then (power rule)
If the two functions f(x) and g(x) are differentiable (i.e, the
derivative exists ), then the product is differentiable and
(f*g)’=f’*g + f*g’ (product rule).
Also the quotient is differentiable and
( )𝑓 ′ 𝑓 ′ 𝑔 − 𝑓 𝑔′
𝑔
=
𝑔
2 (quotient rule)
Chain rule
Example
Exercises
Find the derivative (or differentiate each) of
the following functions:
9. (answer: )
10. (answer:
11. (answer:
)
4.5. Applications of derivatives
a) First derivative
It allows to determine the variation of a function
1. If f ‘(x) > 0 for every x on some interval I, then f (x)
is increasing on the interval.
2. If f ‘(x) < 0 for every x on some interval I, then f (x)
is decreasing on the interval.
3. If f ‘(x) = 0 for every x on some interval I, then f (x)
is constant on the interval.
The first derivative allows to determine the
extremums:
 f’(x) = 0 at critical points
[abscissa of extremums = f(x)]
 Let f be a differentiable function with f '(c) = 0 then
• If f '(x) changes from positive to negative, then f has
a relative maximum at c.
• If f '(x) changes from negative to positive, then f has
a relative minimum at c.
Variation of a function
b) Second derivative
It allows to determine the concavity.
The second Derivative Test
Theorem
Let f be a function such that f’(c) = 0 and the
second derivative of f exists on an open interval
containing c
• If f ’’(c ) > 0, then f(c ) is a relative minimum
• If f ’’(c ) < 0, then f(c ) is a relative maximum
• If f ’’(c ) = 0, then the test fails (i.e; you cannot
decide).
Then, the 2nd derivative enables to determine
the nature of the critical point.
c) L’Hospital’s rule or L’ Hôpital’s rule
If results in the indeterminate form 0/0
or then =
provided the latter limit exists ( or is finite)
Examples
Apply again l’Hospital’s rule
Exercises
sin𝑥 cos𝑥 1
𝑎¿lim¿𝑥→0 ❑ =lim¿𝑥→0 ❑ = =1¿¿
𝑥 1 1
d) Rates of Change
• Derivative is the rate of change of one quantity in terms
of another quantity.
So, for example, if you want to know how something

changes in time, you usually need to invoke a
derivative. This could be something like the position of
an object, or quantity of water in a container, or the
amount of money in your bank account...
• Some examples of optimization issues in business are
maximizing a company's profits and minimizing its
expenditure. In manufacturing, optimization helps to
determine the amount of material that is required for
making a specific item.
Derivatives in Economics:
Use of derivatives in Economics is as follows:
Let x represent the number of units of a certain commodity produced
by some company.
Denote by C(x) the cost the company incurs in producing x units. Then
the derivative of C(x) is what’s called the marginal cost: Marginal cost
=dC(x)/dx = C’(x)
Furthermore, suppose the company knows that if it produces x units,
they can expect the revenue to be R(x),i.e. the revenue is a function of
the number of units produced. Then the derivative of R(x) is what’s
called the marginal revenue. Marginal revenue= dR(x)/dx = R’(x)
If x units are sold, then total profit is given by the formula: P(x)=R(x)-
C(x)
The derivative of profit function is the marginal profit: Marginal
profit=dP(x)/dx=[dR(x)/dx]-[dC(x)/dx]= R’(x)-C’(x)
For a function of 1 variable, the critical point is

found by solving:
The nature of the critical point is:

a)A relative maximum if is negative.
b)A relative minimum if is positive.

For a function of 2 variables, the critical point is found

by solving the system:
The nature of the critical point is:
a)A relative maximum if both and are negative.
b)A relative minimum if both and are positive.

Example

Suppose that the amount of money in a bank
4
account is given by: 𝑃 ( 𝑥)= 3 𝑥 +3 𝑥 − 4 𝑥+2
3 2
where x is in years. During the first 10 years in

which the account is open when does the
amount of money in the account start to
increase?

Solution
Now, we need to determine where in the first 10 years
this will be positive. This is equivalent to asking
where in the interval [0, 10] is the derivative positive.
So, we need to solve the following equation
′ 2
The solution to𝑃this
(𝑥 )=4 𝑥 +6is,𝑥 − 4=0
equation
1
𝑆={−that
We are only interested in those solutions 2 ; fall
} in
2
the range [0, 10]. It is 0.5.
Plugging in values of n in the range [0, 10], into the
equation above we see that the values we need are
greater than 0.5
So, it looks like the amount of money in the bank

account will be increasing during the following
interval: 0.5 < x < 10 where the derivative is positive.
Another way:
f’(1/2)=0. This means 0.5 is an extremum.
f’’(x)= 8x+6
From the theorem about the second derivative test:
f’’(1/2)=(8*0.5)+6=10 > 0, the curve is concave
upwards. This means the amount of money will be
increasing.
Example
An apartment complex has 250 apartments to
rent. If they rent x apartments then their
monthly profit, in dollars, is given by
𝑃 (𝑥)=− 8 𝑥2 +3200 𝑥 − 80,000
How many apartments should they rent in
order to maximize their profit?
Solution
First, we’ll need the derivative and the critical
point(s) that fall in the range 0 ≤ x ≤ 250
P ‘(x) = -16x +3200=0. Then 3200 =16x .Therefore x = 200
P(0) = - 80,000 P(200) =240,000 P(250)=220,000

So, it looks like they will generate the most profit if
they only rent out 200 of the apartments instead of
all 250 of them.
We can also find P’’(x)=-16. As the 2nd derivative is
negative, this means the critical point is maximum.
Note that with these problems you shouldn’t just assume
that renting all the apartments will generate the most profit.
Do not forget that there are all sorts of maintenance costs
and that the more tenants renting apartments the more
the maintenance costs will be.
Heavy maintenance costs burden and lessen the profit.
With this analysis we can see that, for this complex at least,
something probably needs to be done to get the maximum
profit more towards full capacity.
This kind of analysis can help them determine just what
they need to do to move towards goal that whether it will
be raising rent or find a way to reduce maintenance costs.
Example (Inventory Management)
A retailer of motorized bicycles has examined cost data and has

determined a cost function which expresses the annual cost of
purchasing, owning, and maintaining inventory as a function of the
size (number of units) of each other it places for the bicycles.
Where equals annual inventory cost, stated in dollars, and equals
the number of bicycles ordered each time the retailer replenishes
the supply.
Determine the order size which minimizes annual inventory cost.
What is minimum annual inventory cost expected to equal?
Example (Advertising Expenditures)

A manufacturer’s estimated annual sales (in units) to
a function of the expenditures made for radio and TV
advertising. The function specifying this relationship
was stated as: ; where z equals the number of units
sold each year, x equals the amount spent for TV
advertising and y equals the amount spent for radio
advertising (x and y both in $1,000s). Determine how
much money should be spent on TV and radio
advertising in order to sell maximum number of units.
CHAPTER 5: INTEGRATION OF REAL- VALUED
FUNCTIONS AND APPLICATIONS
5.1. Antiderivatives and indefinite integrals
Up this point in our study of calculus, we have been
concerned primarily with this problem: “given a
function, find its derivative”. However, many
important application of calculus involve the inverse
problem: “given the derivative of a function, find
the original function or the primitive”.
For example, suppose you were asked to find a
function F (x) that has the following derivative
Integrals(Cont’d)
From your knowledge of derivatives, you would
probably say that
because = f (x) →dF(x)/dx=f(x)
We call F (x) an antiderivative of f, rather than the

antiderivative of f.
are all antiderivatives of

Integrals(Cont’d)
5.2. Notation for antiderivatives
The operation of finding all solutions (the general
antiderivative of f or the primitive of f) of this equation is
called antidifferentiation and is denoted by the symbol
The general solution of the equation is denoted by
Where x is called the variable of integration, f(x) dx is

called integrand, and C is called the constant of
integration.
Such integrals where we add an arbitrary constant to
every correct result are called Indefinite integrals.
Integrals(Cont’d)
We read the symbol as the antiderivative
of f with respect to x. Thus the differential dx serves
to identify x as the variable of integration. The term
indefinite integral is a synonym for antiderivative,
and the term integration is a synonym for
antidifferentiation.
Differentiation and integration are inverse each other

Integrals(Cont’d)
• “Given a function, find its derivative”.
?
3
(𝑥 )′
4 differentiation 4𝑥
This is the derivative of
• “Given the derivative of a function, find the
original function or the primitive”.
2
? 3𝑥
3
𝑥 +𝑐 : Antidifferentiation ≡ Indefinite integration
This is an antiderivative (or integral)
Integrals(Cont’d)
5.3 Basic integration rules
Differentiation formulae Indefinite integration Formulae
b) Integration by change of variable
With we introduce a new variable which permits to transform a given integral in a tabular
integral like the theorem bellow:
Theorem:
Let u=g(x) be a definite and derivable function on the interval [a, b]and let B its set of the
values; finally let f(u) defined on B. If f(u)admits an anti-derivative on B
then‫𝑓 ׬‬൫𝑔ሺ𝑥ሻ൯. 𝑔′ ሺ𝑥ሻ𝑑𝑥 = ‫ 𝑓 ׬‬ሺ𝑢ሻ𝑑𝑢 on [a, b].
Examples: Calculate
6൫𝑥 2 + 1൯𝑑𝑥 𝑙𝑛𝑥

(1)𝐴 = ‫׬‬ ξ 𝑥 3 +3𝑥
; (2)B=‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
Solution:
1
1
2𝑑𝑢 − 𝑢2
(1)Let u=𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = 3(𝑥 2 + 1)dx⇒ 𝐴 = ‫׬‬ = 2 ‫𝑢׬‬ 2 du=2. 1 + 𝑐 = 4ξ 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥
ξ𝑢
2
+c.
𝑑𝑥 𝑢2 ሺ𝑙𝑛𝑥 ሻ2
(2)Let u=lnx⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑥
⇒ 𝐵 = ‫= 𝑢𝑑𝑢 ׬‬ 2
+𝑐 = 2
+𝑐
Integration by parts.
The method is based on the differentiation formula of a
product of
two functions: d(uv)=udv+vdu.
Then
Example 1: Find A=.
Solution: Let u=x+1.
Then A= .
Example2: Find B=.

Solution: Let u= ;
Then B=.
For the second time suppose
u=x and ;and
B=.
Integration of rational functions.
-All function which is on the form f(x) = where N and D are polynomial
functions is called a rational functions.
(*) if the degree of the numerator is higher or equal than that of the denominator
(deg N
We divide directly and we find f(x) = where r(x) is the remainder of the fraction
and q(x) is called the quotient of the fraction.
Then
Example: Calculate
Solution:
The division give ;
then A=
and after calculation we have A= .
Exercises:
Evaluate the following integrations
1,
Put: and and
=
,
Put: and
and
,
Put: and , and
From 1.
4., Pose and

and =>
5. Evaluate:
Put: and
6. Evaluate:
Put:
7. Evaluate: ,
Put:
=>

Integrals(Cont’d)
5.4 Definite integrals

The fundamental theorem of calculation of
definite integral
Theorem
If a function f is continuous on the interval [a, b],
then
Two main steps are involved:

• Find the antiderivative
• Then, apply on it the bounds.
Integrals(Cont’d)
Definite integrals
Integrals(Cont’d)
5.5 Applications of integrals (computing the area of

a surface) (Also applicable in computation of volume, length etc….)
If f(x) ≥ 0 for a ≤ x ≤ b, then the area of the region in
the plane bounded by the graph y = f(x), the x-axis y
= 0 and the two vertical lines x = a and x = b is
Examples:
Considering the Cartesian plane, find the area of a
surface bounded by f(x) = x2 ,
x-axis and two parallel lines at y-axis(x=1 and x=3).
[ ]
3 3 3
𝑥 26 2
Solution: 𝐴 [ 𝑓 ( 𝑥) ; 1; 3 ] =∫1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥= 3 2 = 3 𝑢
2
Integrals(Cont’d)
Consider the region in the plane bounded on

top by the upper graph y = f(x), below by the
lower graph y = g(x) and on each side by the
the two vertical lines x = a and x = b.
The formula for the area of this region is
Integrals(Cont’d)
Upper graph y = f(x), lower graph y = g(x)
Integrals(Cont’d)
2. Considering the Cartesian plane, find the area of a

domain bounded by the curve y=f(x) =x2+2 and the
line y=g(x) =-x+4.
Solution:
Search the intersection points of the curve and the
line.
Integrals(Cont’d)
Solution
{
2
¿𝑦=𝑥 +2 ⇒𝑥 +2=−𝑥+4⇒𝑥 +𝑥−2=0
2 2
¿𝑦=−𝑥+4
Integrals(Cont’d)
Exercises
1. Compute the area of plane part bounded by
two parabolas:
2 1 2 3
𝑦 =𝑥 −3 𝑥+3 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑦 =− 𝑥 +3 𝑥 −
2 2
2. Compute the area of plane part bounded by the
curves
2
𝑦=𝑥𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑦=𝑥 −2
from x=1 to x=2
Integrals(Cont’d)
Average Function Value

The average value of a function f (x) over the
interval [a, b] is given by:
Exercises
1. Evaluate:
Put:
and 0
Exercises (Cont’d)
Instead of changing the bounds of integration, we can
first find the indefinite integral, then use the
fundamental theorem of calculus to conclude.
2.
.
.
Exercises (Cont’d)
Integration of real-valued functions
Application in Economics:
Supply and demand function
One of the most fundamental economic models is
the law of supply and demand for a certain product
(milk, bread, fuel etc.) or service (transportation,
health care, education etc.) in a free-market
environment.
In this model the quantity of a certain item
produced and sold is described by two curves,
called the supply and demand curves of the item.
• The supply function or supply curve gives the
quantity of an item that producers will supply at any
given price. The demand function or demand curve
gives the quantity that consumers will demand at
any given price.
• We will denote the price per unit by p and the
quantity supplied or demanded at that price by q.
As is the convention in economics, we will always
write p as a function of q.
• Thus the supply curve will be denoted by the
formula p=s(q) and represented by a graph
where the x and y axes correspond to q and p
values respectively. Similarly, we will use
p=d(q) to denote the demand curve.
• As you might expect, the supply function s is
increasing – the higher the price, the more
the producers will supply.
• The demand function d is decreasing – the
higher the price, the less the consumers will
buy.
• The point of intersection (qe, pe) of the supply
and demand curves is called the market
equilibrium point. The numbers qe and pe are
termed equilibrium quantity and equilibrium
price respectively. The equilibrium price is also
sometimes called fair market value.
• The economic significance of the market
equilibrium is the following: consider the case of
bread.
• As long as p < pe, the demand for bread
exceeds its supply, pushing up the price until it
reaches equilibrium price pe. At this point, the
quantity supplied is equal to the quantity
demanded which is the equilibrium quantity.
• Conversely, if the price exceeds equilibrium,
the supply of bread exceeds demand, bringing
the price down.
Supply and demand function (Cont’d)
• Consumers’ surplus
The surplus of the consumer is represented by the area
bounded by the curvilinear
∗
triangle and is given by:
𝑞
𝑠𝑐 =∫ 𝑑 ( 𝑞 ) . 𝑑𝑞− 𝑝 .𝑞
∗ ∗
0
• Producers’ surplus
The surplus of the supplier is represented by area
bounded by curvilinear triangle and is given by:
∗
𝑞
𝑆 𝑝 =𝑝 .𝑞 −∫ 𝑠 ( 𝑞 ) . 𝑑𝑞
∗ ∗
0
• Consumer surplus is the amount of money
saved by consumers because they are able to
purchase a product for a price that is less than
the highest price that they would be willing to
pay.
• Producer surplus is the amount that producers
benefit by selling products at price P⋆ that is
higher than the least that they would be
willing to sell for.
Example
The demand of a market model is given by:
𝑑 (𝑞)=𝑝=−50 𝑞+2000
and the supply component is𝑞+500
𝑠 (𝑞)=𝑝=10 given by:
• Find the equilibrium price and quantity in the

market
• Find Sc and Sp
Supply and demand functions can be expressed in the way that q is
function of the price; s=s(p) and d=d(p)
• Consumers’ surplus
The surplus of the consumer is represented by the area bounded by
the curvilinear triangle and is given
𝑝 by:
∗
𝑠𝑐 =∫ 𝑑 ( 𝑝 ) . 𝑑𝑝 −𝑝 .𝑞
∗ ∗
0
• Producers’ surplus
The surplus of the supplier is represented by area bounded by
curvilinear triangle and is given by: 𝑝
∗
𝑆 𝑝 =𝑝 .𝑞 −∫ 𝑠 ( 𝑝 ) . 𝑑𝑝
∗ ∗
0
Integrals(Cont’d)
Example 1.
The market for oranges represented by the
following model:
d ( p) = 36 – (1/3) p; s( p) = -9 + (1/2) p ,
where q( p) is quantity demanded, s( p) the
quantity supplied and p the price.
(i) Find the levels of output and price at which the
market is at equilibrium.
(ii) Find the surplus of producer and the surplus
of consumer.
Integrals(Cont’d)
Solution:
Market equilibrium will be established when
d ( p) = s( p) .
The po is 54
Substituting this in the supply or demand
function, we have q0 = 18 . The equilibrium point
is (54, 18) .
∗
𝑝 𝑝
∗
𝑆 𝑝 =𝑝 .𝑞 −∫ 𝑠 ( 𝑝 ) .𝑑𝑝 =729
∗ ∗
𝑆 𝑐 =∫ 𝑑 ( 𝑝 ) . 𝑑𝑝− 𝑝 .𝑞 =486
∗ ∗
0 0
Integrals(Cont’d)
Example2
The demand of a market model is given by
2
𝑑(𝑝)=−𝑝 −6 𝑝+7
and the supply component is given by
2
𝑠(𝑝)=𝑝 +3 𝑝+2
• Find the equilibrium price and quantity in the
market
• Find Sc and Sp
Integrals(Cont’d)
Applications of integrals (Cost function)

Example
A company finds that the marginal cost (in
dollars) associated with the production of x
units of a certain commodity is given by
Cm (x) = 30 - 0.02 x .
If the cost of producing one unit is $ 35 , find
the cost function and the cost of producing 100
units.
Integrals(Cont’d)
Solution:
Cm (x) = C’(x) , where C( x) is the cost function.
The antidifferentiation gives:
0.02 2
𝐶 ( 𝑥)=∫ 𝐶 𝑚 (𝑥 )=∫ (30 −0.02 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥=30 𝑥 − 𝑥 +𝑘
2
for some constant k
• Letting x=1 and c(1)=35 we obtain 35=30-0.01+k
• Then, k=5.01. Consequently: 𝐶(𝑥)=30 𝑥 −0.01 𝑥2 +5.01
• In particular, the cost of producing 100 units is,
C(100) = 3000 - 100 + 5.01 = $2,905.01
Thank you for your
attention!

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GENERAL MATHEMATICS

FESM: GEM 100110 (10 credits)

In set notation: ={ : a, b , b≠0}.

Trinomial: where a=1

Perfect square trinomial

Difference of two squares (use of conjugates)

Linear revenue function

Determine the price for which the market equilibrium would

=221 uc and =260 uc

2.Find the equilibrium point for the market above.

A diagonal matrix is a square matrix with all non-diagonal elements

The diagonal matrix is completely denoted by the diagonal

The matrix is denoted by: diag (7, 5, 6)

Two mxn matrices A and B of the same kind are said

The transpose of a matrix

Upper Triangular matrix and Lower Triangular matrix

Here are examples of matrix multiplication for two

e f g h ei+fl+go+hr ej+fm+gp+hs ek+fn+gq+ht

then the determinant of this matrix is as follows:

det (¿ 𝐴)=𝑎11𝑐11+𝑎12𝑐12+𝑎 13𝑐13¿

 Swap the positions of a and d, put negatives

Where adj(A) denotes the adjoint (or adjugate) of a

A simplified way of writing above expression is like

{¿2𝑥−3 𝑦+2 𝑧=21

y=3 and 4x+15=23, then x=2 and from

Working from z to x, we find easily

2.1. Introduction on functions

Functions and their graphs

Sine Function: y=sine x

Cosine Function: y=cosine x

Sine Function and Cosine Function

Numerical functions (Cont’d)

2.3. Composition of functions

𝑐¿ (𝑔 ∘𝑓 )(𝑥 )=𝑔 [ 𝑓(𝑥)]

2.4. Inverse function

Given two one-to-one functions f(x)and g(x), if

( 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)=𝑥𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑔∘ 𝑓 )(𝑥)=𝑥

• The inverse function of f(x) is the function such

(𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 )(𝑥)=𝑓 [𝑓 (𝑥)] (𝑓 ∘𝑓 )(𝑥)=𝑓 [ 𝑓 (𝑥)]

(𝑔∘𝑔 )(𝑥)=𝑔[𝑔 (𝑥)] (𝑔 ∘𝑔)(𝑥)=𝑔 [𝑔(𝑥)]

(h∘h )(𝑥)=h [ h (𝑥)]

2.5. Logarithmic and exponential functions

2.5.2. Definition and notations

There are two important things to note:

Graph of y = ln x and graph of y = ln (x − 2) which is

Exponential function and logarithmic function are inverse

Like all logarithms, the natural logarithm maps

2.5.6. Logarithmic rules

Common Logarithm Natural Logarithm

log xy = log x + log y ln xy = ln x + ln y

log 1/x= -log x ln 1/x = -ln x

log x/y = log x - log y ln x/y = ln x - ln y

log x1/y = (1/y )log x ln x1/y =(1/y)ln x

4.ln 𝑥 =ln (𝑥 ∗𝑥∗𝑥 )=ln 𝑥+ln 𝑥+ln 𝑥=3ln 𝑥 𝑦 1

2.5.7. Change of base

Exponential and logarithmic equations

is the exact answer and x = 4.38202663467 is an

Step 3: Simplify the left side of the above equation

Step 4: Solve for x. Note: The product of two

Step 3: Divide both sides of the above equation by 3:

Step 1: Note the first term is valid only when

Step 4: Let each side of the above equation be

1st year 1200 1200(10/100)=120 1200 1200(10/100)=120

2nd year 1200 1200(10/100)=120 1320 1320(10/100)=132

4th year 1200 1200(10/100)=120 1597.2 1597.2(10/100)=159.72

5th year 1200 1200(10/100)=120 1756.92 1756.92(10/100)=175.692