SOIL AND

SOIL PROFILE
WHAT IS SOIL?

Soil is the loose surface material that covers most land. It

consists of inorganic particles and organic matter. Soil provides
the structural support to plants used in agriculture and is also
their source of water and nutrients. Soils vary greatly in their
chemical and physical properties. It is made up mainly of mineral
particles, organic materials, air, water and living organisms—all
of which interact slowly yet constantly.

Soil is a material composed of five ingredients — minerals, soil

organic matter, living organisms, gas, and water.
There are different types of soil, each with
its own set of characteristics. Dig down
deep into any soil, and you’ll see that it is
made of layers, or horizons (O, A, E, B,
C, R). Put the horizons together, and they
form a soil profile. Like a biography, each
profile tells a story about the life of a soil.
Most soils have three major horizons (A,
B, C) and some have an organic horizon
(O).
The Horizons include:
O (Humus or Organic)
(O)Humus or organic – Most organic matter is classified as
“humus” or “organic,” like decaying leaves. In certain soils, the O
horizon is thin, whereas in others, it is thick or completely
absent. The O horizon is the upper layer of the topsoil which is
mainly composed of organic materials such as dried leaves,
grasses, dead leaves, small rocks, twigs, surface organisms,
fallen trees, and other decomposed organic matter. This horizon
of soil is often black brown or dark brown in colour and this is
mainly because of the presence of organic content.
A (Topsoil)
(A)Topsoil – mostly biological matter mixed with minerals from
the original material. A suitable living medium for plants and
other organisms. This layer is rich in organic material and is
known as the humus layer. This layer consists of both organic
matter and other decomposed materials. The topsoil is soft and
porous to hold enough air and water.

In this layer, the seed germination takes place and new roots are
produced which grows into a new plant. This layer consists of
microorganisms such as earthworms, fungi, bacteria, etc.
E (Eluviated)
(E)Eluviated – Leached of clay, minerals, and organic matter,
leaving a concentration of quartz or other refractory sand and
silt particles. These particles are absent from some soils but are
frequently present in older soils and forest soils. This layer is
composed of nutrients leached from the O and A horizons. This
layer is more common in forested areas and has lower clay
content.
B (Subsoil)
(B)Subsoil – Rich in minerals that accumulated here after leaching
(moving down) from the A or E horizons. It is the subsurface
horizon, present just below the topsoil and above the bedrock. It is
comparatively harder and more compact than topsoil. It contains
less humus, soluble minerals, and organic matter. It is a site of
deposition of certain minerals and metal salts such as iron oxide.

This layer holds more water than the topsoil and is lighter brown
due to the presence of clay soil. The soil of horizon-A and horizon-B
is often mixed while ploughing the fields.
C (Parent Material)
(This layer is devoid of any organic matter and is made up of broken
bedrock. This layer is also known as saprolite. The geological
material present in this zone is cemented known as saprolite. The
geological material present in this zone is cemented.

R (Bedrock)
(R)Bedrock – If the bedrock is close enough to the surface to weather,
it can serve as the parent material for various soils. Examples of
bedrock include granite, basalt, quartzite, limestone, and sandstone.
This is situated below the C horizon and is not soil.
WHAT MAKES SOIL, SOIL?
Soil is a mixture of minerals, dead and living organisms (organic
materials), air, and water. These four ingredients react with one
another in amazing ways, making soil one of our planet’s most
dynamic and important natural resources.

THE SOIL IS TEXTURED

Three categories of soil-forming particles are identified by
sand, silt, and clay sizes. The largest particles are sand and clay
particles. While it is possible for a soil to have only sand, clay, or
silt, this is uncommon. Instead, the majority of soils are a mix of
the three.
THE SOIL IS STRUCTURAL

When soil particles are arranged into tiny clusters, which are known as
soil structure, “peds”. Similar to how the components of cake batter
combine to produce a Sand, silt, clay, and organic materials in the soil
bind together to form a cake. Peds come in a variety of shapes based
on their “ingredients” and the conditions that led to the formation of
the peds: being wet and drying out, even persons walking on or
farming the land are affected by freezing and thawing. Structure plus
texture equals soil behavior. The structure and texture of a soil gives us
a great deal about how a soil will act.
THE SOIL IS COLOR

The mineral content of the soil can be inferred from color. Iron-rich
soils are deep. Orange- to yellowish-brown in color. Those that
contain a lot of organic stuff. In reality, biological matter conceals all
other coloring factors, turning objects dark brown or black. We can
also infer a soil’s behavior from its color. Brightly colored soil that
drains nicely colored. One that is often wet and soggy has an uneven
(mottled) pattern of yellows, reds, and grays.
Different Types of Soil
Sandy Soil is light, warm, dry and tends to be acidic and low in
nutrients. Sandy soils are often known as light soils due to
their high proportion of sand and little clay (clay weighs more
than sand).
These soils have quick water drainage and are easy to work
with. They are quicker to warm up in spring than clay soils but
tend to dry out in summer and suffer from low nutrients that
are washed away by rain.
The addition of organic matter can help give plants an
additional boost of nutrients by improving the nutrient and
water holding capacity of the soil.
Clay Soil is a heavy soil type that benefits from high nutrients. Clay soils
remain wet and cold in winter and dry out in summer.
These soils are made of over 25 percent clay, and because of the spaces
found between clay particles, clay soils hold a high amount of water.
Because these soils drain slowly and take longer to warm up in summer,
combined with drying out and cracking in summer, they can often test
gardeners.
Silt Soil is a light and moisture retentive soil type with a high fertility rating. As
silt soils compromise of medium sized particles they are well drained and hold
moisture well. As the particles are fine, they can be easily compacted and are
prone to washing away with rain. By adding organic matter, the silt particles
can be bound into more stable clumps.
Peat soil is high in organic matter and retains a large
amount of moisture. This type of soil is very rarely found in
a garden and often imported into a garden to provide an
optimum soil base for planting.

Chalk soil can be either light or heavy but always highly

alkaline due to the calcium carbonate (lime) within its
structure. As these soils are alkaline they will not support
the growth of ericaceous plants that require acidic soils to
grow. If a chalky soil shows signs of visible white lumps
then they can’t be acidified and gardeners should be
resigned to only choose plants that prefer an alkaline soil.
Loam soil is a mixture of sand, silt and clay that are combined to avoid the
negative effects of each type. These soils are fertile, easy to work with and
provide good drainage. Depending on their predominant composition they can
be either sandy or clay loam. As the soils are a perfect balance of soil particles,
they are considered to be a gardeners best friend, but still benefit from topping
up with additional organic matter.
Apart from the rocks, minerals, and layers, soil profile also
consists of a water content, which is referred to as soil
moisture.
What Is Soil Moisture?
Water in the soil is referred to as soil moisture. Water absorption in
the soil is determined by various factors. It plays a major role in soil
formation. As a result of precipitation, water arrives at the surface.
The particle size distribution of soil determines its porous nature and
causes downward movement of water vertically which is known as
infiltration. This penetration continues deep in the layers of soil until
it reaches saturation.
Water, on reaching this barrier, cannot seep vertically further, hence it
moves sideways. Formation of puddles as a result of saturation is called
surface ponding which can be long-lasting. Water that is available to
plants is called Root zone moisture while surface soil moisture is the
water available in the immediate upper region of soil.

Moisture content in the soil can be measured using a device known as

Tensiometer. They are water-filled tubes which are sealed with a porous
ceramic tip towards the bottom and a gauge at the top which is devoid of
air molecules. They are penetrated into the soil till the root level. Water
passes between the tip of the device and the ambient soil until it reaches
an equilibrium and hence, tension is recorded on the gauge. Readings
thus obtained give a measure of soil moisture in that region.
Types Of Soil Moisture
The different types of water present in the soil include:

• Gravitational Water
The water that reaches the water table of the soil due to the
gravitational force is referred to as gravitational water. This is not
available to the plants.

• Hygroscopic Water
This water is also not available to the plants. It is a thin film of
water tightly held by the soil particles.
• Chemically Combined Water
The chemical compounds present in the soil particles contain
water. This is known as chemically combined water. This is also not
available to the plants.
• Capillary Water
This water is available to the plants for absorption. This water
exists between soil particles in small capillaries.
• Atmospheric Humidity
The hanging roots of the epiphytes absorb the moisture in the air
due to the presence of hygroscopic hairs and spongy velamen
tissues.