Unit 3

Data Collection Methods

and Instruments
Data
– These are the observable and measurable facts that
provide information about the phenomenon under
study.
– There are two types of data ie. primary and
secondary
– Nursing research mainly rely on primary data
Contd.

Data collection
Data collection is the process of gathering and
summarizing the data so that it can be transformed
into meaningful information in order to
– Identify and measure variables,
– Describe the behaviour of respondents
– Identify the relationships between the variables
Contd.

• The five W’s of data collection are

– What data are to be collected? (types of data)
– How will the data be collected? (methods/tools)
– Who will collect the data? (researcher/enumerator)
– From where the data will be collected? (setting)
– When is the data to be collected? (time)
Contd.

1. What data will be collected?

– Should include the type of data needed depending upon the
nature of research question or hypothesis
2. How will the data be collected?
– Mentioning about the instrument and method
– Self report, interview, physiological measurement,
anthropometric measurement, performance checklist or
rating scale
– The instrument should be appropriate and feasible to use.
– Ethical consideration sought during data collection also
needs to be mentioned.
Contd.

3. Who will collect the data

– It includes planning about data collector whether
researcher him/herself will collect the data or with
the team of research assistants (enumerators).
– When one or more than one data collector is to be
used, it is essential to ensure that data are collected
in a uniform manner, thus training is needed for all.
– Data collectors should also be supervised to ensure
the quality of data.
Contd.

4. Where will data be collected

– The setting should be carefully planned
– Environment must be conducive to obtain quality
data ie. comfortable temperature, noise free, well
lighted, well ventilated, privacy maintained
– Convenient time of respondent for data collection
where possible in order to get valid answer
Contd.

5. When will the data be collected?

– It includes timing (month, day and hour) and time
for data collection
– Pretesting of instrument will provide an idea about
the length of time needed for completion of data
collection
Contd.

Sources of Data collection

• Primary sources
– Data directly collected from the respondents
– Provide first hand information
– Collected through interviews, questioning,
observation, biochemical measurements and
psychosocial measurements scales.
Contd.

• Secondary sources
– These data are collected from either internal or
external secondary sources
– External sources: existing materials such as
published or unpublished records
• Published- journals, magazines, newspapers, government
reports, census reports
• Unpublished- official records, patients records, thesis,
dessertations and reports.
– Internal sources- biographies, personal diaries,
letters, memories etc.
Methods and Tools of Data Collection

• Methods /Techniques of data collection: The

various steps or strategies used for gathering
and analysing data in a research investigation
are known as the methods of data collection.

• Instrument /tools for data collection: A

research instrument is a device used to
measure the concept of interest in a research
project that a researcher uses to collect data.
Characteristics Methods Tools
Methods and tools for
/Techniques data collection
Demographic and Self report method Questionnaire
behavioural facts, (Questioning) -Self administered
Method/techniques
opinions, - Interviewer administered
Feelings, attitude
Interview Interview Schedule

Skill, practice, Observation Structured

behaviour -Checklist
-Rating scale
Unstructured
-Anecdotal records
-videotapes/film
Contd.

Methods/techniques Tools
Biophysiologic measurements -Measuring devices
• in vivo biophysiologic
measurements eg. Vital signs
• In vitro biophysiologic
measurements eg. Blood tests

Anthropometric measurements -Measuring devices

-Height
-Weight
-BMI
-Mid arm circumference
-Skinfold thickness
 Factors affecting Selection of Methods of Data Collection

• Nature of phenomenon under study (survey/

knowledge/clinical practice)
• Type of research participants (psychologically disabled,
illiterate)
• Type of research study (qualitative/quantitative)
• Purpose of the research study (descriptive/observational)
• Size of the study sample (small/large)
• Distribution of the target population
• Availability of resources and manpower
• Researcher’s knowledge level and competence
Contd.

 Questionnaires and interview schedule are the

most frequently used tools in nursing research
 Observation is important in testing of
hypothesis and seeking answers to research
questions related to clinical setting.
 Questionnaires
– These are one of the most popular and common
methods of data collection in any research studies.
– Very convenient way of gathering information from
a target population
 Contd.

Definitions
 A questionnaire is a structured instrument consisting of a
series of questions prepared by a researcher that a
research participant is asked to complete in order to
gather data related to knowledge, beliefs, feelings and
attitude.

 An instrument is called a self-administered questionnaire

(SAQ) when the respondents complete the instruments
themselves, usually in a paper and pencil format and
occasionally directly onto a computer.
Contd.

– An instrument is called a interviewer administered

questionnaire when the interviewer asks the
questions on the tool to the respondents and
records the answers in a paper and pencil format.
Usually done for illiterate respondents.
Contd.

Types of Questions used in Questionnaire

1. Structured
• Questions are presented to the respondents with fixed
response categories
• Have number of alternative replies from which the
respondents have to choose the most likely answer.
Characteristics
– Provide preliminary analysis
– Facilitate easy statistical calculation of data
– Can be asked to different groups at different intervals
– No place for any personal opinion of the respondents
Contd.
2. Unstructured
• Every question is not necessarily presented to the
respondents in the same wording and does not have fixed
responses.
• Provide opportunity to the respondents to express their
opinions in their own way.

Characteristics
• No predetermined set of responses
• Provide true, insightful and unexpected suggestions
• However, it is tedious for data analysis
3. Semi structured questionnarie
• This contains both structured as well as
unstructured opinion based questions in the
same questionnaire.
• An ideal questionnaire contains opinion based
question towards the end of all the questions
that would ask respondents about the
suggestions for changes or improvements.
Eg. 1. Do you perform exercise?
a. Yes
b. No
2. If yes, when do you perform exercise
c. In the morning
d. In the evening
e. Others (please specify…..)
3. How do you think exercise help in keeping us
healthy?..........
Or, what are advantages and disadvantages of doing exercises?
……………..
Types of structured questions
1. Dichotomous (yes/no); (Male/Female)
2. Multiple choice- Knowledge and practice related
questionnaires
eg.Which of the following disease is non-communicable?
a. HIV/AIDS
b. Tuberculosis
c. Hypertension
d. Hepatitis B
Contd.

3. Multiple response types

eg. Where do you use internet? (tick all that apply)
a. At home
b. At campus
c. At friend’s home
d. At resturants where wifi is free

Which sports do you play? Please check all that apply

e. Football
f. Volleyball
g. cricket
h. Basketball
i. Tennis
j. Badminton
k. Others (please specify)
 Contd.

4. Contingency questions: a question that is asked further only if the

respondents give a particular response to previous questions.
Eg. Do you feel stressed?
a. Yes b. No
4. a. 1 If yes, what are the reasons?.............

5. Rating / Ordinal scales: these ask respondents to judge the

variable of interest along the ordered dimension.
Eg. How would you rank the quality of education at your campus?
1 2 3 4
Good Fair Poor Very Poor
6. Continuous scale- respondent’s data is presented in
continuous scale
Eg.
Age- 50 years
Height- 155 cm
Weight- 55 kg
 Steps in Designing a Questionnaire
• Decide the study objectives and variables
• Identify the target group and geographical
distribution
• Identify the available resources
Specific steps
• Formulating Questions
• Sequencing the questions
• Formatting the questionnaire
• Translation of questionnaire
• Formulating Questions
– Breakdown the content into smaller parts
(according to specific objectives)
– Formulate sufficient questions to get information
about each variable
– Make the questions exact and precise
– Avoid loaded or leading questions that suggest the
desired answer. Eg. ‘do you think HIV/AIDS is a
communicable disease?
Contd.

– Avoid ambiguous words eg instead of the word

‘dinner’ use simple words such as ‘evening meal’.
– Avoid negative and double negative questions
o Which of the following is not the s/s of tuberculosis
o which of the following is not a non-communicable
disease?
– Comprehensible and clear wording should be used
– Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.
– Construct the question without making assumption
about the respondents.
• Sequencing of questions
Sandwich theory
– It states that the questionnaire should generally
start with demographic profile of the respondents,
followed by specific questions according to the
objectives of the study.

– Have screening questions early on the sequence

after the introduction.
– Group similar questions together within the
sections, and move from general to specific.
– Keep more sensitive questions as late as possible
eg. Disease with stigma, sexual behavior etc.
– Use simple and common language (avoid
professional jargons)
– Make questions short, simple and to the point
– Ensure that the questionnaire can cover all the
measurement variables according to objectives.
Contd.

– Sequence the main body questions in a logical

order
(eg knowledge questions on disease)- knowledge
about disease, causative factors, s/s, management,
preventive measures)
– Arrange from simple to complex
– Factual and behavioral to the attitude related
questions
Contd.

• Formatting the questionnaire

– Make the instrument ‘user friendly’ and make sure
that
• The instrument has a heading,
• space to insert serial no.,
• date and location of data collection and
• name/code number of the informant.
Contd.

• Heading and subheadings are used as needed

particularly in long questionnaire so that
questions belonging to same variable appear
together
• Sufficient space is provided to write answers
in open-ended questions
• Boxes for pre-categorised answers are placed
in a consistent manner.
• Provide clear instructions for filling the
questionnaire
• Purpose of the study
• Who you are and the organization you represent
• What you want the respondents to do
• If tool contains different sections, it should
be organized according to sections, each
section should have a brief introduction
stating its purpose.
• If particular questions require specific instruction,
include in that question.
• If some questions branch, ie. if yes, …. Go to the
question 12; these instructions must be stated clearly in a
user-friendly manner
• Also make it clear when some questions do not apply to
all respondents.
Eg do you smoke?
If yes, how many sticks per day?....
If no, please go to question no. ….
Contd.

• Translation
– Questionnaires may need to be translated if data is
to be collected in local language.
– Back translation into original language by
bilingual translator is essential to verify the
validity of questionnaire.
Contd.

Advantages of questionnaire

 Relatively simple method for data collection

 Can be used in large sample as well as wide scattered
sample.
 Inexpensive and time saving
 Anonymity can be maintained so useful for sensitive issues
like sexual relationships, family disharmony and violence
etc.
 No need for trained interviewers
 No place for interviewer bias
 Easy for data analysis
Disadvantages of Questionnaire
 Limited to literate sample only, thus cannot be representative of
whole population
 (option for this: interviewer administered questionnaire)
 No opportunity for interaction with respondents
 Difficult to approach in case follow-up is needed
 Very low response and return rate, thus require very large sample
size
 Data can be incomplete
 Amount of information is limited to respondent’s available time
and interest.
 May create misunderstanding among the respondents regarding
the questions.
 Interview
• It is the process of communication or interaction in
which the respondents or interviewee provides the
needed information verbally in face-to-face situation.

• Interview is collection of data in a face to face situation

where the interviewer asks questions to the respondent
and records the response.

• The instrument used for interview is called as interview

schedule.
 Types of interview schedule
1. Structured (directive)
– The interview schedule consists of questions
listed in order in which they are to be answered.
– These are the standardized interviews as this
increases the reliability of the research data
– Same questions are put to all the respondents and
in the same order
– Interviewers cannot change the specific wording
of the interview schedule questions
Eg. Stress and coping in dialysis patients
• eg. How long have you been receiving
dialysis?
• Do you feel stress in receiving this procedure?
• If yes, what symptoms do you exhibit?
• What do you do to manage these stressful
situation?
Contd.

Merits
– Data from one respondents to other can be compared
– Easy for recoding, coding and analysing the data
– Prevents from diverting to irrelevant and time-
consuming conversation.
Demerits
– Cannot provide spontaneity of natural conversation
– Investigator’s bias may result as respondent’s views
are minimized
– More exploration of information of data is limited.
Contd.
2. Unstructured Interview (Non-directive)
– Also known as non-standardized interviews
– Here the questions are asked according to the
research problem in order to meet the respondent’s
intelligence, understanding and beliefs
– Interviewer encourages the respondents to talk freely
about given topic.
– No preplanned schedule is used
– The aim is to explore the information from the
respondents
Contd.
• Merits
– Less prone to interviewer bias
– Helps to explore the problem of respondents in detail
– When good rapport is built, useful for gathering
information on sensitive topics like eg. Domestic violence,
divorce, social discrimination, drug addiction etc.
• Demerits
– The data obtained from one interview is not comparable to
the data from the next
– Time may be wasted in unproductive conversation
– No order or sequence in interview, thus difficulty in
analysis
Contd.

3. Semistructured interview
– It is a flexible method that allows new questions to
be brought up during the interview, depending
upon the situation during the interview.
– Interviewer prepares the interview guide, which is
an informal list of topics and questions that can be
asked in different ways from different participants.
– It helps to focus on the topics at hand without
constraining them to a particular format.
 Process of Interview
A. Preparation for Interview
• Fix up the appointment:
– Interviewer should fix up the topic and time of interview with
respondents ahead of time.
• Appearance and dress:
– The interviewer should dress in a fashion fairly familiar and with
due regards to the sensibilities of people who will be interviewed.
– Interviewer should be pleasant and should communicate a
genuine interest.
• Familiarity with interview schedule:
– The interview schedule must be studied carefully and the
interviewer must also be able to list items to respondents without
errors.
Contd.

B. Pre-interview introduction
– Researcher must introduce himself or herself to all
respondents respectfully
– Select the setting with as little disturbance as
practicable
– Clearly describe objective and significance of the
interview and study
– Give information on approximate time of
interview
– Ask them if they have any questions
Contd.

C. Developing rapport
– After primary introduction, develop rapport with
respondents
– This is developed through confidence building and
understanding the concerns of the respondents by
beginning the conversation on general topics.
D. Carrying the interview forward
– After establishing rapport, the interview is carried
out with following guidelines
– Start the interview
– Ask only one question at a time
– Repeat a question if necessary
– Try to make sure that the participants understand the
questions
– Listen carefully to the answers
– Observe the participant’s facial expressions, gestures
and tone of voice.
– Allow the respondents a sufficient time to answer
the questions
Contd.

– Do not show signs of surprise, shock or anger

– Take a note of answers that seem to be vague or
ambiguous
– Ask additional questions to follow-up clues or to
obtain additional information
– Do not hurry, if silence is too prolonged, introduce
a stimulus.
Contd.

E. Recording the interview

– It is essential to record responses as they take place
– Good information can be taken by note-taking
– A tape recorder should be used to record the responses of
respondents

F. Closing the interview

– After the interview is over, a polite leave of the
respondents should be taken
– Thank with friendly smile and saying goodbye
Contd.

Advantages of interview/interview schedule

– Useful to obtain information about person’s
feelings, perceptions and opinions
– Clarification of questions is possible
– High response rate is achieved
– Verbal as well as non verbal clues can be
observed/noted
– Less time consuming for the interviewee as they
do not have to write or return the instrument
– Higher chance of all questions being answered.
Contd.

Disadvantages of interview/interview schedule

– Time consuming and costly for interviewer
– Anonymity cannot be maintained
– Interviewee/respondents may not feel free to
express opinion and ideas to the interviewer
– Interviewer’s subjective bias may be introduced
– If enumerators are hired, they should be provided
the training for the consistency in data collection.
 Observation
– Observation is a way of gathering data by watching
behaviour, events, or noting physical characteristics in
their natural settings.

– It is the systematic process of selecting, watching and

recording the behaviour or characteristics of people,
object or phenomenon.

– It is a two part process to collect data for the study that

includes an observer (someone who is observing) and
the observed (there is something to observe).
 Uses of Observation Method
• To understand an ongoing process or situation-
eg. Teaching practice of a student
• To gather data on individual behaviours or
interactions between people- eg. Hand
washing technique among nurses
• To observe about physical setting- eg.
observational visit of educational institution
Contd.

Purpose of Observation
– To use as a primary source of information
– To validate/triangulate information collected by
interview or questionnaire
 Types of Observation
1. Unstructured observation
– It involves spontaneous observation and
recording of the behavior (what is seen) with a
minimum of prior planning.
– It gives freedom to the observer, thus possesses
the risk of loss of objectivity and problem of
remembering all details of the observed events.
– It is generally used in qualitative studies
• The potential for bias is high
• Unstructured observation is carried out by using
unstructured tools, and the following tools are
generally used by the researchers.
– Log and field notes
– Anecdotes
– Field diary
– Video recording
Contd.

2. Structured observation
– In this method, researcher prepares a structured or
semi-structured tool in advance to observe the
phenomenon under study.
– It is guided by the preplanned structured or semi-
structured instrument, where the researcher observes
only specific attributes or behaviour in accordance
with planned observation guidelines.
– This helps the researchers to be on the track while
carrying out an observation as well as analysis of
data collected remains easy
Contd.

– It is appropriate when the problem is clearly

defined and the information needed is specified.

– Steps to be used in structured observation are

• Define carefully the behaviours to be observed
• State how they would need to be observed
• State how they need to be recorded (using mutually
exclusive categories or a rating scale)
3. Participant’s observation
– In the participant-observation, the observer observes as
well as takes part in the situation being observed.
– So, the researcher becomes a part of the group to be
observed.
– Used in ethnographic studies.
4. Non-participant’s observation
– The observer watches the situation but does not
participate
– Observer does not normally question or communicate
with the people being observed.
Contd.

5.In- direct Observation:

• In in-direct observation, participants are unaware that
they are being observed and thus behave naturally
• It can be achieved by hiding or using hidden equipment

6. Direct Observation
• In this type, participants are aware that they are being
observed.
• Hawthrone effect may occur- people behave differently
when being observed.
Structured ObservationTools
• Observation checklist
• Rating scale
• Observational checklist
– It is one of the most commonly used instruments for
performance evaluation
– It enables the observer to note only whether or not a
trait is present.
– It consists of a listing of steps, activities, and
behaviours the observer records when an incident
occurs.
– The observer has to judge whether certain behaviour
has taken place.
Definition
– A checklist is a simple instrument consisting of
prepared list of expected items of performance or
attributes, which are checked by a researcher for
their presence or absence.

• Eg. of checklist
Checklist for evaluation of student’s performance during surgical dressing

SN Expected behaviour Yes No remarks

1 Explain procedure
2 Collects necessary equipments
3 Positions patient
4 Washes hand
5 Maintains aseptic technique
6 Removes dressing
7 Observes condition of wound
8 Cleans wound
9 Applies dressing
10 Removes equipments
11 Makes patient comfortable
12 Completes charting
13 Replaces the articles
Characteristics of checklist
– Observe one respondent at one time
– Clearly specify the characteristics of behaviour to
be observed
– Use only carefully prepared checklist
– Observer should be trained on how to observe and
how to record the observed behaviour
Contd.

Construction of Checklist
– Express each item in a clear, simple language
– The list of items in the checklist may be continuous or
divided into groups of related items (eg. Blood transfusion
process- Pre transfusion, during transfusion, post
transfusion)
– The lists of items should be formulated on the basis of
judgement of experts in a stepwise procedure
– Avoid negative statements wherever possible
– (eg. Did not wash hands- incorrect
Performs hand washing- correct)
– Review the items independently.
– It must have quality of completeness and
comprehensiveness
 `
• Merits of checklist
– Allows the inter-individual comparisons
– Simple method to record observation
– best for clinical procedure evaluation
– Provides objectivity, no space for subjective bias
– Decreases chances for error in observation
• Demerits of checklist
– Does not indicate quality of performance
– Only a limited component of overall clinical
performance can be evaluated
ie. only the presence of absence or presence of an
attribute, behaviour or performance is assessed,
degree of accuracy cannot be assessed.
Rating Scale
– Rating is the term used to express the opinion or
judgement regarding some performance of a person,
object, situation or character
– It has qualitative description of some aspects of traits of a
person or a thing
– It allows the observer to rate behaviour or event on a
scale
– It provides more descriptive information for analysis than
by a checklist.
– However, it tends to be more subjective and observer’s
bias may be introduced
Contd.
Definition
– Rating scale refers to a scale with a set of opinion,
which describes varying degree of the dimensions
of an attitude being observed.
– Rating scale is a tool in which the one person
simply checks off another person’s level of
performance.
– It could be three-point, five-point, or seven point
rating scale
Contd.

Types of rating scale

1. Graphic rating scale:
• In this scale, the performance is printed horizontally at various
points from lowest to highest.
• It includes the numerical points on the scale with two extremes
presented to respondents for evaluation of a concept or object.
Eg. An observation on study on environment management of a
ward
Noise Control
Visitor Control

Least I I I I I I I Most
Contd.

2. Descriptive rating scale

Students Level of clinical performance
Poor Fair Good Very Excellent
good
Sita
Gita

Three point rating scale

Always Sometimes Never
Wash hands
before each
procedure
 Contd.

3. Numerical Rating Scale

• It divides the evaluation criteria into a fixed
number of points, but defines only numbers at the
extremes.
• Each statement is generally assigned a numerical
score ranging from 1-10, or even more.
Eg. Clinical teaching Performance
Poor Excellent
I I I I I I I I I I
Merits of rating scale
• Easy to administer and score the measured
attributes
• Have wide range of application in nursing research
• Easy to administer
• Used to evaluate performance, skills and product
outcomes
• Rating scales are adaptable and flexible research
instruments.
Demerits of rating scale

• Highly subjective – may rate the participants

on the basis of their previous interactions or an
emotional rather than objective basis
• Lack of uniformity if there are more than one
observers
Contd.

Advantages of Observation
– Collects data so as to when and where an activity
or event is happening so recall bias is eliminated
– Respondents are readily available
– Instrument is simple to use
– Gives first hand information about the situation
– Directly allows to notice what people do rather
than checking what people tell that they did.
Contd.

Limitations of Observation
– The time and duration of an event may not be
predictable
– The observer must wait until the event occurs
– Observation of human behaviour is time
consuming; thus not feasible in large scale studies.
– It is an intense process with a recommended
maximum length of time for observation for one
observer is 30 mins. For a longer period, team of
observers may be needed.
Contd.

– Howthorne effect- presence of observer creates

artificial situation- people usually do better when
they come to realize that they are being noticed.
This can be decreased by indirect observation.
– Observer bias can occur
– Events can occur rapidly and suddenly making it
impossible to record every detail
– Extensive training is required if more than one
observer is used for inter-rater reliability.
 Biophysiological Methods
– The biophysiologic data collection method can be
applied alone or along with the other methods.
– Specific technical instruments and equipments are
used to measure the physiologic and physical
variables
– Specialized training is needed for the measurement
and interpretation of the results.
• Purposes
– To study basic physiologic process related to
nursing care
– To study physiologic outcome of nursing care
– To evaluate nursing intervention
– To study correlation of physiologic functioning in
patients with health problems
Types

• In-vivo biophysiologic methods-to measure physiological

process occuring internally within living organisms through
different instruments
• Eg TPR, BP monitoring
• Measurements are directly performed over the body of study
participants by using a specialized instruments or
equipments.
• The findings are then interpreted by the researchers.
• Eg. Measurement of blood pressure by using
sphygmomanometer, cardiac conduction by ECG monitor,
temperature by using thermometer etc.
• In vitro biophysiologic methods- physiological processes are
measured and analysed outside the organism eg. Lab tests
• It is the measurement of the biophysiologic attributes of the
participants, which is carried out through collection of sample of
data related to physical, biochemical, microbiologic, pathologic
and anatomical status by using some technical instruments.
• Here the specimens are collected and tested outside the body.

– Chemical measures
– Microbiologic measures
– Histologic measures
Advantages of biophysiologic methods
– Accurate, precise and sensitive
– More objective in nature
– Valid and reliable measures for targeted variables,
ie. these measurement tools only measure what
they are supposed to measure
– Easy access to most of the instruments in clinical
settings which are used for routine patient care
Disadvantages of biophysiologic methods
– Some instruments are very expensive
– Use of instruments requires significant training,
knowledge and experience
– May cause fear and anxiety among participants
thus distorting the results
– Some measures may have harmful effect on
patients. eg. X-rays
 Anthropometry
– It is the process that involves the quantitative
measurement of the human body
– It is a portable, universally applicable, inexpensive
and non-invasive technique for assessing the size,
proportions and composition of the human body
– As a data collection process it is used to evaluate
both under-nutrition and over nutrition
– However, the measured values reflect the current
nutritional status and does not differentiate between
acute and chronic changes.
Anthropometric parameters

Age dependent Age independent

• Weight • Mid arm circumference
• Height (1-5 years)
• Head circumference • Skinfold thickness
• Chest circumference • Body mass index
Measuring weight
– The measurement of weight is most reliable
criteria for assessment of health and nutritional
status of children
– Common weight measuring
Instruments are.
1. panscale (for infants)
2. Salter type spring machines
3. Beam weighing balance
Height measurement
– Upto two years of age, length is measured with the
help of infantometer
– In older children and adults, standard height or
stature is recorded
– Instrument used- stadiometer
Head circumference
– Routinely recorded until 5 years of age
– Measured by placing measuring tape over
the occipital protuberence at the back and
just over the supraorbital ridge and the glabella
in front.
Chest circumference
– Usually measured by measuring tape at
level of nipples preferably in mid inspiration
– In children
<5 years- lying down position
>5 years- standing position
Mid upper arm circumference
– During 1-5 years remains static between 15-17
cms in healthy children
– Measured with fiber glass or steel tape
– <12.5 –severe malnutrition
– 12.5-13.5 moderate malnutrition
Measured over the left upper arm at a point
marked midway between acromion (shoulder) and
olecranon (elbow) with arm bent at right angle.
Body Mass Index= Weight (kg)/ height (m2)
Advantages of Anthropometry
• Simple, safe, non-invasive
• Equipment is inexpensive, potable and durable
• Less skill and experience required
• Precise and accurate; readings are numerical and gradable
on standard growth charts
• Readings are reproducible
• Can be used to evaluate changes in nutritional status
overtime
• Can serve as a screening test
Disadvantages of anthropometry
– Inter-observers errors in measurement

– Limited nutritional diagnosis

– Problems with reference standards, i.e. local

versus international standards.
Composite scale/attitude scale
– A scale is a device designed to assign a numeric
score to people to place them on a continuum with
respect to attributes being measured
– These rating scales can also be used to assess the
attitudes or feelings of self concept
– The expression of the any point of view are
accounted as measurements towards any item
– They show the person’s positive or negative
attitude towards any concept.
– Measuring the score between two opposite
concepts tell us about the attitude, feeling and
perception of a person or study participants
towards the direction of positive or negative
attitude in a scale.
 Likert Scale
– Likert scale was named after a psychologist Rensis
Likert as a psychologic concept measurement scale.
– Primarily five point likert scale consisting of positive
and negative declarative statements (strongly agree,
uncertain, disagree, and strongly disagree)
– Recently, 4 points- (strongly agree, moderately agree,
disagree, and uncertain).
– 7 points- (very strongly agree, strongly agree, agree,
uncertain, disagree, strongly disagree and very
strongly disagree) are also used
 Uses of Likert Scale
• To measure the attitudes, values and feelings of the
people about specific concepts, situations, people, places,
objects, programs, practices, policies and so on
• To have quantified measurement of the qualitative
attributes of people such as feelings, values and attitudes.
• It may also be used to assess the opinions of the
respondents about a particular abstract or concept
• It collects the opinions of people with various attitudes,
emotions, and feelings towards a particular concept.
 Scoring of Likert scale
– Scoring of the likert scale is done on the basis of
type of statement and level of respondents’
agreement with statement.
– For a positive statement, respondents get higher
score if there is agreement with statement
– However, in case of negative statement,
respondent gets higher score if there is
disagreeement with statement or vice versa
Statement Strongly agree uncertain disagree Strongly
Eg. agree disagree

1. Persons with multiple sex 5 4 3 2 1

partners are at high risk of AIDS

2. You can get AIDS by sharing 1 2 3 4 5

utensils
Advantages of likert scale
– Relatively easy to construct
– More reliable and valid tools to measure the
psychosocial variables
– Easy to administer, since respondents only have to
tick in spaces provided against each statement
– Less time consuming during administration
Disadvantages of likert scale
• Respondents may feel forced to answer the questions
against all preplanned items and their categories
• Feelings of the respondents may not be fully assessed
due to researcher’s preplanned statements and
categories
• Difficulty in justifying the selection of the number of
categories and numerical assignment to the categories
• Casual approach of respondents in these scales may
provide misleading data.