School of Natural Resources

and
Environmental Studies

M.Sc Agriculture Programme

Course Code: MAG 613
First Semester 2023

Course Title: Breeding of Field and Horticultural Crops

Introduction to Genetics,2023
Michael Roberto Kenyi Legge
Assistant Professor,
Department of Agricultural Sciences, School of Natural Resources and Environmental Studies,
University of Juba
Tel: +211(0)925772319/ +211(0)910089524
E-M: michaelrobertokenyi@gmail.com
 Lecture No: 1
The main aim of the course study unit is to get the experience of
variation and heredity in living bodies. It basically covers in-depth
information on genetics transportation from one generation to
another generation.
 Learning Objectives
By the end of the indicated lectures, students will be able to:

• Define Genetics?

• Discuss the history and evidence of Genetics

• Come into terms with Terminologies in Genetics

• Explain Hybridization and Hybrid

 What is Genetics?
• Definition: Genetics is the study of heredity and variation of inherited
characters

• Heredity: The tendency of offspring to resemble their parents

• Variation: The tendency of offspring to vary from their parents

• Genetics is a relatively young branch of biology

• Agricultural genetics is the applied study of the effects of genetic variation

and selection used to propagate valuable heritable trait combinations in
crop plants and farm animals.
Genetic Principles

• Genetic principles are the rules or standards governing the biological phenomenon of heredity,
the transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring via information encoded
biochemically using DNA, in units called genes

• The Mendel’s four postulates and laws of inheritance are

(1)Principles of paired factors

(2) Principle of dominance
(3) Law of segregation or law of purity of games(Mendel’s First of inheritance) states that for
any trait each parent’s pairing of genes(alleles) split and one passes from each parent to an
offspring
(4) Law of independent assortment(Mendel’s second Law of Inheritance) states that during
gamete formation the segregation of each gene pair is independent of other pairs.
 Branches of Genetics
• Cytogenetics: The study of inheritance in relation to the structure and function of
chromosomes

• Molecular Genetics: Is a scientific discipline concerned with the structure and function of
genes at molecular level

• Phylogenetics:Is a part of systematics that addresses the influence of the evolutionary

history and relationships among or within groups of organisms

• Developmental Genetics: Is the study of the way in which genes control the growth and
development of an organism

• Behavioural Genetics: Is the study of genetic and environmental influences on behaviours

 History and Evidence
• Study of Genetics started with work of an Austrian Monk Gregor Johan
Mendel(1822-1884)

• His work was on Pisum sativum (Garden pea)

• The period of study:1856-1864 and the work was rediscovered after 34 years

• Title, year and published in: Experiments in Plant Hybridization (German) in

1866 published in the annual proceedings of the natural history society of
Brunn

• Mendel’s findings were known as Mendelism or Mendelian Laws of Inheritance

 History and Evidence……..Cont’d
• Three (3) scientists independently rediscovered Mendel’s original work in 1900
• Carl Carens (Germany)
• Hugo de Vries (Holland) coined the term mutation in 1890, while an English
farmer noticed mutation in his unusual short-legs male lambs in 1791
• Erich von Tschermak (Austria)

• The term “Genetics” was coined by William Bateson in 1905,while Johnson

coined the term “gene” in 1909
Lecture No:2
 Coming into Terms with Terminologies in Genetics

(1) Gene: Is a continuous segment of DNA and hereditary determining factor

• DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Aid is the hereditary material present in nearly all living organisms.
DNA is composed of four nucleotide bases: Adenine(A),Cytosine ( C ),Guanine(G) ( and
Thymine(T).

• Chromosomes: Are threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of
most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes. The gene occupies a
specified position on the chromosome called Locus(Loci)

• Mutation: Is a change in one or more genes. Mutation in plants is a naturally occurring

phenomenon that alter the appearance of a plant characteristics. For example, a flower may
exhibit two colours ,exactly half and half.
Coming into Terms with Terminologies in Genetics

(2) Genome: Is an organism’s complete set of genetic instructions

which is made up of DNA.

(3)Polyploidy: Refers to the presence of heritable condition of cells of

an organism possessing more than two complete sets of
chromosomes in a single organism-one inherited from each parent.
Examples: Wheat, Groundnut, Banana, Potato, coffee and others.
Coming into Terms with Terminologies in Genetics

(4) Allele or Allelomorphs

• Definition: Alleles are alternate forms of a gene which occupy an

identical loci on homologous chromosome

• Allele controls a contrasting characters of the same trait

• Usually alleles exist in TWO different forms:

• Dominant allele
• Recessive allele
Coming into Terms with Terminologies in Genetics
(5) Dominant and Recessive Alleles
• Dominant alleles will always express
• Recessive alleles will express only in absence of dominant alleles
• Dominant allele masks or suppresses the expression of recessive
allele
• Dominant alleles are classically symbolized with capital letters
• Recessive alleles are symbolized with small letters
Trait Character Dominant Dwarf
Height Tall or Dwarf TT tt
Coming into Terms with Terminologies in Genetics
(6) Genotype and Phenotype
• Genotype: The genetic make up(constitution) of an organism
• Phenotype: The physical features /appearance of an organism
• Phenotype is the expression of a genotype
• Phenotype is produced not only by the genotype, but also by the interaction
between genotypes and environmental factors
• Trait: Height
• Phenotype: Tall or Dwarf
• Genotype: TT or Tt and tt
Coming into Terms with Terminologies in Genetics
(7) Homozygous: A condition in which both the members of an allele pair
in homologous chromosomes are identical (either dominant or recessive
alleles)
Tall: TT
Dwarf: tt
(8) Heterozygous: A condition in which the members of an allele pair in
homologous chromosomes are not identical (one dominant and one
recessive allele)
Tall: Tt
 Coming into Terms with Terminologies in Genetics
(9) Hemizygous: A condition when genes are present only in one copy
• Genes on X chromosomes in male(have one X and one Y chromosome)
• Genes on Y chromosomes (only Y chromosome in males)

(10) Dominance: The ability of an allele to express itself phenotypically in both

homozygous(TT) and heterozygous(Tt) conditions
(11) Recessiveness:The inability of an allele to manifest its phenotype in
heterozygous(Tt) condition
Lecture No:3
 Hybridization and Hybrid

(12) Hybridization: The process of crossing two genetically different

individuals.
Homozygous Tall X Homozygous Dwarf
TT tt
(T) (t)
Tt
Heterozygous Tall
• Hybrid: The progeny (offspring or children of any organisms)of
hybridization is called hybrid.
• Heterosis (Hybrid Vigour): Is the increase in growth, size, fertility, function,
yield, or other characters in hybrids over those of the parents.
(13) Monohybrid:
• An organism which is heterozygous with respect to only one pair of
allele at a locus under study
Tall X Dwarf
(14) Dihybrid:
• An organism which is heterozygous with respect to two pairs of
alleles at two loci under study

Yellow Round Seed X Green Wrinkled Seed

(15) Monohybrid Cross

• A cross between two individual organisms which are different from

each other with respect to one pair of allele under study

Tall X Dwarf

TT tt
(16) Dihybrid:

• A cross between two individual organisms which are different from

each other with respect to two pairs of allele under study

Yellow Round Seed X Green Wrinkled Seed

YYRR yyrr
(17) F1 and F2 Generation
• F – Filial meaning son
• F1: First generation progeny of a hybridization
• F2: Progeny of F1(hybrid) when it is hybridized with one of its parents
TT X tt
(T) (t) t
Paren
ssi ve
c e
Re
TtF1X tt
(T) (t) (t)

TtF2 tt
(18) Reciprocal Cross:

• Two reverse crosses in which the sexes of the parents are interchanged

Tall (Male) X Dwarf (Female)

Dwarf (Male) X Tall (Female)

• If the traits are autosomal, the reciprocal cross always yield same result

• If the traits are on sex chromosomes, the reciprocal cross gives different
results
(19) Backcross:

• The cross of F1 offspring of one of its parents

• If F1 crossed with dominant parent, all progenies (F2) will be

dominant

• If F1 crossed with recessive parent, individuals with both

phenotypes will appear in equal proportion

• The ratio of progenies produced during back cross is called

backcross ratio
(20) Test Cross:
• Test cross is a type of backcross in which the F1 progeny is crossed with its double recessive parents
• Test cross is to determine whether the individuals exhibiting dominant character are homozygous or
heterozygous(to detect the genotype of F1)
TT X tt
(T) (t)

Tt nt
Pare
i ve
e c ess
R
(T) (t)X tt
F1
(t)

Tt tt F2
Examples of Medndelian Laws of
Inheritance
 Mendel’s Law of Segregation
Parent 1 Tall T T X t t Dwarf
Gametes T t

F1 Generation T t Heterozygous(Tall)
Parent 2 X Selfing

Gametes T t T t

F2 Generation TT Tt Tt tt Genotypic
Ratio:1:2:1

Phenotypic Ratio: 3 Tall : 1 Dwarf

 Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment

Genotypic Ratio:1:2:2:4:1:2: 1:2:1

https://www.biologydiscussion.com/essay/genetics-essay/essay-on-genetics-for-college-and-medical-students-bi
ology/78956
 Test

Wednesday 25 January 2023

Instruction: Answer All Questions Time: 1 hour
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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1- What is a genome?
2- What do you understand the term “Heterosis”?
3- In a few sentences, what were Mendel’s key ideas about inheritance?
4- On the basis of Mendel’s observations, predict the results from the following crosses with peas:
(a) a tall (dominant and homozygous) variety crossed with a dwarf variety;
(b) the progeny of (a) self-fertilized;
(c) the progeny from (a) crossed with the original tall parent;
(d) the progeny of (a) crossed with the original dwarf parent.
References/Reading List
• Dear Students,

• These power point presentations are collection of chapters and

sections from different books, articles and journals

• This material is for use as learning materials in lecture

• Some sources have been specified and others have not

• Therefore, you are instructed to study any material entitled principles,

concepts, essentials, basics, fundamentals, introduction to and
References/Reading List

• Principles of Genetics

• Essentials of Genetics

• Concepts of Genetics

• Fundamentals of Genetics

• Basics of Genetics

• Genetic Analysis

• Introduction to Genetics

• Others