GROUNDWATER MOVEMENT

• Cannot observe directly flow of

groundwater
• Use relationship between flow & hydraulic
gradient to infer two-dimensional
groundwater flow

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 Darcy’s Law
Q = rate of flow (m3/s)
h1 = head at point 1
h2 = head at point 2
L = distance between 1 and 2
A= cross-sectional area of the porous
Q material

L
∆h

h1
h2
Q

2
• Cross-sectional area, A.
• Rate of flow, Q, is proportional to A
• Rate of flow is proportional to the hydraulic
gradient ∆h=(h1-h2)/L

Ah1  h2 
Q  K
l
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• K= constant of proportionality, hydraulic
gradient with units of length/time (m/s).
• The relationship is only valid for laminar
flow.

• Q/A = q which is the flow rate per unit

surface area with units of velocity.
• Since water moves through pores only, q
is a superficial velocity.

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The average velocity of flow, v is given by

Q q
v 
A 

whereα  effective porosity.

5
 Hydraulic conductivity values
Material Hydraulic Conductivity
(m/s)
Gravel 3 x 10-4 to 3 x 10-2

Clay 1x 10-11 to 4.7 x 10-9

Fractured igneous rock 8 x 10-9 to 3 x 10-4

Unfractured igneous 3 x 10-14 to 2 x 10-10

rock

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 Factors determining hydraulic
conductivity, K
• Liquid properties which are viscosity and
density.
K

1
K


where
K  hydraulic conductivity
  liquid density
  viscosity 7
• Aquifer properties such a porosity and
permeability.
• K increases with increase in porosity.
• K also increases with increasing
permeability.
• Interconnectedness of pores affects K.

8
K  d2

d 2
*
KK


d  mean grain diameter of sand

K *  proportionality factor depending on intrinsic permeability

9
• Layering of rock materials will cause K to
change vertically.
• K can also change in the horizontal
direction due to differences in rock
materials.

10
 Anisotropicity
• Anisotropic material – hydraulic
conductivity has directional properties.
Kx may not be equal to Kz and Ky
• Isotropic material – hydraulic conductivity
is equal in all directions, i.e.

Kx = Kz = Ky

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Darcy’s Law for Anisotropic
Material
h
qx  K x
x

h
q y  K y
y

h
q z  K z
z 12
 Water table maps and
Potentiometric Surface
• Can map water levels within a single
aquifer.
• Unconfined aquifer => water table map.
• Confined aquifer, map piezometric heads
to give potentiometric surface.
• Equipotential line – joins locations at the
same water head.
• Can infer the direction of groundwater
movement from these maps.
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 Equipotential lines

h4

h3

h2

h1

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• Water moves from areas of high to low
potential
• Moving water crosses perpendicularly
equipotential lines
• Flow lines or streamlines – contours
describing the direction of groundwater
movement
• Flow net – network of flow lines &
equipotentials

15
 Flow net

h4

h3

h2

h1

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• Flow lines or streamlines do not intersect
• Stream tube – zone between 2
neighbouring flow lines

17
Recharge Areas & Discharge Areas
• Groundwater moves from recharge areas
to discharge areas
• Recharge area – net saturated flow is
directed away from the water table
• Discharge area – net saturated flow is
directed towards the water table
• Recharge area – water tables is often at
some depth
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• Discharge area – water table is usually
close to the surface
• Hinge line – line separating the recharge
area from the discharge area
• Recharge areas are located in highlands
• Discharge areas are located in valleys
• In a symmetric system, groundwater divide
coincides with surface divide.
• Areas with complex topography &/or
hydrogeology => complicated groundwater
flow systems
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Re
cha
rge
are
a

Discharge
area

20
 Effect of Topography
Case A
• Water table follows closely the topography
• Uniform water table results in a single flow
system
• Upland is a recharge area, while valley is
the discharge area

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Case B:
• Hilly topography
• Numerous subsystems of groundwater
flow, with a major regional flow system
• Water entering the flow system may be
discharging in the nearest topographic
low, or is discharged in the regional
discharge area.
• Have a) local system, and b) regional
system.
• Possible to have c) intermediate system
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• Areas with negligible local relief have only
a regional system
• Pronounced local relief – only local system
develops

23
Effect of Geology on Regional Flow
Systems
• Geological heterogeneity – pronounced
effects on regional flow systems
• Can affect the surficial pattern of recharge
and discharge areas

24
 Surface – groundwater flow
interactions
• Problem of quantifying recharge into
groundwater, and discharge from groundwater.
• Some parts of the basin can be dominated by
recharge into groundwater.
• Other parts of the basin along the same river
can be dominated by discharge of groundwater.
• Can have seasonal changes in surface-
groundwater interactions.

25
Discharge into the river dominates

Re
cha
rge
are
a

Discharge
area

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Recharge of groundwater by the
river

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Surface-groundwater interactions

Movement into the

river

Movement into
groundwater

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