Haramaya University

College of Computing and Informatics (CCI)

Department of Information Technology
Wireless Networking and Mobile Computing
Chapter: One
Introduction and Basic Concepts

Wogayehu Atilaw

2021
Lecture#1
Outlines

 Wireless and mobile communication

 Wireless Network Classification
 802.11 Standards and Architecture
 802.11 Security
 Challenges

 Applications
Introduction
What makes difference between wireless LAN vs wired LAN?
 Basics of wireless networks
 Wireless communication is a fast developing and evolving technology:-
Emerging new technologies
Number of subscribers has been growing tremendously
 Information is transmitted over the open air using electromagnetic waves
 Connects devices to another or to a network without the need of wires
 Advantages
 Mobility
 Flexibility
 Expandability
 Lower installation cost
 What is a Wireless network?
 Wireless networks are computer networks that do not use conventional cables (Ethernet cables).
 Instead it uses RF waves as a communication medium, in which data is transmitted over radio
signals operating typically between 2.4GHz -5.0GHz.
 Devices stay connected and can roam within the wireless coverage area without being
physically tied to any fixed point.

 Wireless LANs (WLANs) use radio frequencies (RFs) that are radiated into the air from an
antenna that creates radio waves.
 These waves can be absorbed, refracted, or reflected by walls, water, resulting in low signal
strength.
 So because of this essential vulnerability to surrounding environmental factors, wireless
networks will never offer us the same robustness as a wired network.
 …
Wireless equipment lists that support WLAN/WMAN/WWAN connection
■ Wireless Voice over IP phones
■ Wireless print servers & Cordless phones
■ Wireless access points, routers, and bridges
■ Radio Frequency Identification devices
■ Wireless presentation gateways
■ Wireless conferencing systems
■ Laptop computers, PDAs, and other mobile wireless client devices
Organizations that guide the wireless industry
 There are three primary categories of organizations that guide the wireless industry.

1. The regulatory bodies [FCC, ETSI, ITU-R]

2. Standard development [IEEE, IETF]

3. Compatibility testing [Wi-Fi alliance]

 ….
 A regulatory domain can be defined as a bounded area that is controlled by a set of laws or
policies. They set the boundaries or the rules for what the user can do with a radio transmitter.
 The regulatory bodies mainly focuses on Radio frequencies available, Output power levels,
Indoor and outdoor usage, regulates the use of wireless devices and chartered to produce
common standards.
 Standard development orgs.--- Develop a standard with in the boundaries given by the
regulatory bodies.

 Wi-Fi alliance is an organization that certifies equipment to be interoperable with other

equipment in the WLAN industry based on their certification standards.
 Or it certifies that the devices working together across the boundaries capability. It checks the
compatibility of cables, protocols, data models, service request protocols and so on
…
 IEEE hierarchy
 IEEE is an organization that creates standards that we use to communicate.
 It specify standards based on regulations defined by regulatory bodies.
 It has three hierarchies project, working groups and task groups.
 Project- is the top level IEEE family.
-802 project is one of the IEEE projects
-focuses on both wired and wireless network standard developments
or it covers both LAN, WAN, WLAN etc..
 IEEE….
Working groups
 projects are subdivided into working groups

 It focuses on specific technology

 To develop standard that address specific problems

 802.3, 802.11, 802.15, 802.16, 802.20 are examples of working groups.

 802.3 focuses only on Ethernet LANs (Wired networks)

 802.11 specifically develops a standard for wireless networks

 802.15 focus on Bluetooth technology

 802.16 covers for WiMAX

 802.20 focus for mobile broadband access

 IEEE…. Task groups
 Working groups are further classified into task groups
 Task groups focus on a specific modifications or details of a technology
 802.11n and 802.11i were task groups
 802.11n focuses on MIMO technology giving as faster data rate and greater
stability.
 802.11i focus on enhancing the security for 802.11 protocols
 802.11 a/b/g/n standards focus for changes on:-
 Distance • Frequency
• Channels
 Speed
• MIMO
 Latency • Channel bonding
 Standard development lifecycles/process

 Standard is a comprehensive document that consists of the whole improvement/innovation on

the technology/protocols developed.
 Standard roll-ups make amendment documents obsolete (outdated).
 Amendments were done for better modulation techniques, faster data rates, enhanced security
measures, roaming and to get greater quality of services.
Major amendments
 Amendments and Rates
802.11b uses a modulation technique called Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) that’s just
not as robust as the Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) modulation used by
both 802.11g and 802.11a (modulation techniques).
 Unlicensed frequency bands (ISM & UNII bands)
 FCC provides two types of license-free bands for radio communications:
1. Industrial Scientific Medical (ISM) bands and
2. Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure (U-NII) bands.
 Currently, there are 11 ISM bands in various frequencies throughout the radio frequency
spectrum, but only the one starting at 2.4 GHz is used by IEEE 802.11, and it is the frequency
band most familiar to WLAN users.
 These license-free bands provide both a benefit and a disadvantage.
 The benefit comes from the fact that you are not required to obtain a license to communicate
within these license-free bands.
 The disadvantage of using license free bands is that others can also use them.
 Contention and interference issues and ensure that you have the bandwidth available for your
intended purpose in the environment where you will be implementing the WLAN.
 Unlicensed frequency band (ISM & UNII bands)
 The FCC has released three unlicensed bands for public use: 900MHz, 2.4GHz, and 5GHz.
 The availability of these frequencies allows users to operate wireless networks without
obtaining a license, and without charge.
 The 2.4 GHZ spectrum is only 83MHZ wide for 802.11 usage.
 Each channel is either 22 MHZ wide or 20MHZ wide based upon the modulation type used.
 Standards that use FHSS or DSSS is 22MHZ wide whereas standards that use OFDM is
20MHZ wide.
 There are 14 channels in this RF band
 Various non-802.11 devices also operate in this frequency range as well as in the 5GHZ
causing interference for Wi-Fi devices. Such devices includes Microwave ovens, baby
monitors, exchange cameras, Bluetooth and walky-talkies.
 Those devices creates a lot of noise during communication, and great reduction data rates.
Channels….
 2.4 GHZ channels

 Channels 1, 6, and 11 are the only non-overlapping channels b/n 1 through 11.
 Using channels that cause overlap may cause CRC errors, interference and collisions
 We should have to use 1, 6, and 11 channels for compatibility of mobile users from other
countries also.
5GHz Channels
 The 5 GHZ band

 There are 25 non-overlapping channels in the 5GHZ spectrum.

 There are more non-overlapping channels than the 2.4GHZ spectrum
 They were more implemented for UNII bands.
 Channels greatly varies by country and if the AP complies with the DFS (Dynamic Frequency
Selection) or support DFS.
 DFS= means the channels may have to monitor for radio resource management or listen for free
channels and move to that one dynamically.
 This time 20 MHz and 40 MHZ wide channels are recommended
 20 MHz for standard data networks that are high density to very high density and have up to 25
channels
 40 MHz for standard data networks that are medium to low density and have up to 12 channels.
Deference b/n TCP & UDP
23
802.11 WLAN Architecture
 802.11 WLAN architectures
 A station (STA) might be a PC, a laptop, a PDA, a phone or whatever device having.
 An access point (AP), sometimes called a base station (BS), is a device that allows wireless
devices to connect to a wired network using Wi-Fi, or related standards.
 A basic service set (BSS) consists of an access point together with all associated STAs.
 The AP acts as a master to control the STAs within that BSS. The simplest BSS is
composed of one AP and one STA.
 Basic service area (BSA):- The area that contains members of a basic service set (BSS).
 Association- The service that maps a station to its access point.
 Colocations- if two stations are members of different basic service sets then the BSSs are called
collocated.
 An extended service set (ESS) is a set of one or more interconnected basic service sets (BSSs)
that appears as a single BSS. It is a set of two or more BSSs that form a single sub-
networks.
 WLAN architectures (BSSID and SSID)
 A service set identification (SSID) is a 32-character (maximum) alphanumeric key identifying
the name of the wireless local area network. The SSID value is sent in beacons, probe requests,
probe responses, and other types of frames.
 The SSID, or service set identifier, is used to indicate the identity of an ESS or IBSS, depending
on the implemented topology.
 The SSID can be from 2 to 32 characters in length and is normally sent in the beacon frames.
 A STA seeking to join a WLAN may send probe request frames including the SSID of the
desired WLAN. If an AP “hears” the probe request frame and it uses the same SSID, it will
respond with a probe response frame.
 The STA that transmitted the original probe request frame may now authenticate and, if
successful, associate with the BSS.
 The BSSID is a 48-bit globally unique identifier that is used to identify each service set (BSS).
 It is MAC address of the AP serving the BSS.
 WLAN architectures
 A distribution system (DS) is the mechanism by which APs exchange frames with one another
and with wired networks, if any.
 The DS is composed of two parts: the Distribution System Medium and the Distribution System

Services.

 The Distribution System Medium (DSM) is the medium or set of media used for communications
among APs in the ESS. The most popular medium in use today is certainly Ethernet, but the IEEE
standard allows for the use of other media such as Token Ring or even another form of wireless.

 The Distribution System Services (DSS) are composed of the services that provide the delivery of
frame payloads between stations that are in communication with each other over a shared
instance of WM and in the same infrastructure BSS.
 WLAN architectures
 Two modes of BSSs- the IBSS (Ad hoc network) & Infrastructure mode

 When all of the stations in the BSS are mobile stations and there is no connection to a wired
network, the BSS is called an independent BSS (IBSS).
 An IBSS is an ad hoc network that contains no access points, which means they cannot connect
to any other basic service set.

 Infrastructure Mode
When a wireless AP station is used, an infrastructure BSS (simply called a BSS) is
implemented.
 ESS
 Two or more basic service sets are connected by a common distribution system.
Independent and Infrastructure basic service sets
 Roaming
 Roaming is the process or ability of a wireless client to move seamlessly from one cell (or
BSS) to another without losing network connectivity. Access points hand the client off from
one to another in a way that is invisible to the client, ensuring unbroken connectivity.

 When any area in the building is within reception range of more than one access point, the
cells’ coverage overlaps.
 Overlapping coverage areas are an important attribute of the wireless LAN setup, because it
enables seamless roaming between overlapping cells.

 Roaming allows mobile users with portable stations to move freely between overlapping
cells, constantly maintaining their network connection.
 Boundaries
 A constraint of existing technology is that wired networks are often segmented for
manageability. Enterprises with multiple buildings, such as hospitals or large businesses, often
implement a LAN in each building and then connect these LANs with routers or switch-routers.
 This layer 3 segmentation has two major advantages.
 First, it contains broadcasts effectively, and second it allows access control between segments on
the network.
 This type of segmentation can also be done at layer 2 using VLANs on switches.
 The layer 2 connection is still maintained by the access points, but since the IP subnet has
changed while roaming, the connection to servers, will be broken.
 Without subnet-roaming capability (such as with using a Mobile IP solution or using DHCP),
wireless LAN access points must all be connected to a single subnet.
 (e.g., multi-building campuses, multi-floored high rises, or older or historical buildings) cannot
embrace a single subnet solution as a practical option.
 Boundaries…
 Access points can't hand off a session when a remote device moves across router
boundaries because crossing routers changes the client device's IP address.

 The wired system no longer knows where to send the message.

 When a mobile device reattaches to the network, all application end points are
lost and users are forced to log in again, reauthenticate, relocate themselves in
their applications, and recreate lost data.

 The same type of problem is incurred when using VLANs.

 Switches see users as roaming across VLAN boundaries.
 Locating a Wireless LAN (Scanning)
 When you install, configure, and finally start up a wireless LAN client device,
the client will automatically “listen" to see if there is a wireless LAN within
range.

 The client is also discovering the WLAN, if it can associate with that wireless
LAN. This process of listening is called scanning.

 Scanning occurs before any other process, since scanning is how the client finds
the network.
 There are two kinds of scanning: passive scanning and active scanning.
 Passive Scanning
 Passive scanning is the process of listening for beacons on each channel for a
specific period of time after the station is initialized. These beacons are sent by
access points (infrastructure mode) or client stations (ad hoc mode).
 The station searching for a network listening for beacons until it hears a beacon
listing the SSID of the network it wishes to join. The station then attempts to join
the network through the access point that sent beacon.

 In configurations where there are multiple access points, the SSID of the network
that station wishes to join may be broadcast by more than one of these access
points. In this situation, the station will attempt to join the network through the
access point with the strongest signal strength and the lowest bit error rate.
Passive Scanning
 Active Scanning
 Active scanning involves the sending of a probe request frame from a wireless station.
 Stations send this probe frame when they are actively seeking a network to join.
 The probe frame will contain either the SSID of the network they wish to join or a broadcast SSID.
 If a probe request is sent specifying an SSID, then only access points that are
servicing that SSID will respond with a probe response frame.
 If a probe request frame is sent with a broadcast SSID, then all access points within reach will
respond with a probe response frame.

 The point of probing in this manner is to locate access points through which the station
can attach to the network.
 Once an access point with the proper SSID is found, the station initiates the authentication and
association steps of joining the network through that access point.
Active scanning

 The information passed from the access point to the station in probe response frames is almost identical
to that of beacons.
 Probe response frames differ from beacons only in that they are not time-stamped and they do not
include a Traffic Indication Map (TIM).
 Authentication & Association
 The process of connecting to a wireless LAN consists of two separate sub-processes.
authentication and association.
 For example, when we speak of a wireless PC card connecting to a wireless LAN, we say that
the PC card has been authenticated and has associated with a certain access point.
 Association =Layer 2 connectivity

 Authentication is the process through which a wireless node (PC Card, USB Client, etc.) has
its identity verified by the network (usually the access point) to which the node is attempting
to connect.
 Authentication--- pertains directly to the radio PC card, not to the user.
 Understanding the steps involved in getting a client connected to an access point is crucial to
security, troubleshooting, and management of the wireless LAN.
 Once a wireless client has been authenticated, the client then associates with the access point.
 States of Authentication & Association
 The complete process of authentication and association has three distinct states:
1. Unauthenticated and unassociated
2. Authenticated and unassociated
3. Authenticated and associated
Authentication Security

 Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)

 WPA-Personal and WPA2-Personal
 WPA-Enterprise and WPA2-Enterprise
 Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
41

 Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) protocol was the first IEEE 802.11 standard for the purpose of
providing security which was comparable to wired n/ws.

 The goal was to prevent casual eavesdropping on a WLAN.

 In now a days WEP has failed as a security solution and should not be implemented in any
WLAN.

 WEP-40 uses a 40-bit key for encryption. The encryption algorithm used in WEP is RC4.
WEP…
..42

 With the rapid increase in processor speeds, cracking WEP has become a very short task, and it can no longer
be considered for protection against any organized attack. The attacks in WEP include the following:
■ Brute force attacks
■ Dictionary attacks
■ Weak IV attacks
■ Reinjection attacks
■ Storage attacks
 The brute force attack method is a key-guessing method that attempts every possible key in order to crack the
encryption. With 104-bit WEP, this is really not a feasible attack method; however, 40-bit WEP can usually be
cracked in 1 or 2 days with brute force attacks using more than 20 distributed computers.

 The dictionary attack method relies on the fact that humans often use words as passwords.
 The key then is to use a dictionary cracking tool that understands the conversion algorithm used by a hardware
vendor to convert the typed password into the WEP key.
 WEP..
43

 The weak IV attacks are based on the faulty implementation of RC4 in the WEP protocols. The IV is
prepended to the static WEP key to form the full WEP encryption key used by the RC4 algorithm.
 This means that an attacker already knows the first 24 bits of the encryption key, since the IV is sent in
clear-text as part of the frame header.
 The 802.11 frames that use these weak IVs have come to be known as interesting frames. With enough
interesting frames collected, you can crack the WEP key in a matter of seconds. This reduces the total
attack time to less than 5–6 minutes on a busy WLAN.

 What if the WEP-enabled network being attacked is not busy and you can’t capture enough interesting
frames in a short window of time? The answer is a reinjection attack. This kind of attack reinjects ARP
packets onto the WLAN. The program airplay can detect ARP packets by their unique size and does not
need to decrypt the packet. By reinjecting the ARP packets back onto the WLAN, it will force the other
clients to reply and cause the creation of large amounts of WLAN traffic very quickly.
WEP…
44

 Storage attacks are those methods used to recover WEP or WPA keys from their storage locations. On
Windows computers, for example, WEP keys have often been stored in the registry in an encrypted form.
WPA & WPA2 (Personal mode)
45

 It operates in an unmanaged mode that uses a pre-shared key (PSK) for authentication
 Wi-Fi Protected Access Personal Mode (versions 1 and 2) are designed for home and small
office/ home office (SOHO) users who do not have authentication servers available.

 A passphrase is manually entered on the access point to generate an encryption key (called the
PSK).
 Consequently, it does not scale well in the enterprise.

 The PSK is typically shared among users.

 A PSK of sufficient strength one that uses a mix of letters, numbers, and non-alphanumeric
characters is recommended.
WPA & WPA2 (Personal mode)
46

 Personal Mode uses the same encryption methods as Enterprise Mode.

 It supports per-user, per session, per-packet encryption via TKIP/RC4 with WPA or CCMP/AES
with WPA2.

 Home and SOHO users should consult a vendor to learn more about deploying WPA-Personal or
WPA2-Personal and PSK for their environments.

 WPA2 also supports TKIP v2, which is not compatible with the TKIP v1 used by WPA.

 WPA & WPA2 were developed by the Wi-Fi Alliance based upon the IEEE 802.11i amendment.
WPA & WPA2 (Enterprise mode)
47

 Enterprise Mode operates in a managed mode to meet the severe requirements of enterprise
security.
 It leverages the IEEE 802.1X authentication framework that uses an Extensible Authentication
Protocol (EAP) method with an authentication server to provide strong mutual authentication
between the client and authentication server via the access point or WLAN controller.

 In this mode, each user is assigned a unique key mechanism for access to the WLAN. This
affords a high level of individual privacy.

 For WPA, TKIP/RC4 encryption is used. TKIP employs an encryption cipher that issues
encryption keys for each data packet communicated in each session of each user, making the
encryption code extremely difficult to break.
WPA & WPA2 (Enterprise mode)
48

 For WPA2, CCMP/AES encryption is used. CCMP/AES is stronger than TKIP/RC4, thus
providing additional network protection; however, CCMP/AES requires more processing power
than many legacy WLAN devices provide.
 A hardware upgrade to more modern equipment is usually required for CCMP/AES support.

 TKIP uses the RC4 encryption cipher originally used in WEP, typically requiring only a
firmware upgrade to most legacy equipment.

 WPA2 also supports TKIP v2, which is not compatible with the TKIP v1 used by WPA.

 WPA and WPA2 were developed by the Wi-Fi Alliance based upon the IEEE 802.11i
amendment.
Mind u
Types Wireless networks
Types of wireless networks
 The classification of wireless networks is similar to wired networks.

 Four primary categories based on the area coverage of the wireless network.
 Wireless network coverage is defined as the extent of the area to which the wireless signals are
transmitted.
1. Wireless PANs (WPANs)
2. Wireless LANs
3. Wireless MANs (WMANs)
4. Wireless WANs
Wireless network classifications’
 WPAN
Wireless Personal-Area Networks (WPAN)
 Operate based on the IEEE 802.15
 Permit communication in a very short range, of about 10 meters.
 Allows small, power efficient, inexpensive solutions to be implemented for a wide range of devices such as
a smartphone and a PDA.
 Characterized by low power demands and a low bit rate.
 Technologies such as Bluetooth, IrDA, ZigBee or UWB are examples.
 Bluetooth is intended for a cordless mouse, keyboard, and hands-free headset.
 IrDA is intended for point-to-point links between two devices for simple data transfers and file
synchronization. TV remote sensor
 ZigBee is designed for reliable wirelessly networked monitoring and control networks.
 UWB is oriented to high-bandwidth multimedia links.
 Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)
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 range up to 100 meters

 Used mostly in home, school computer laboratory, or office environments
 The IEEE 802.11 is a family of different standards for wireless local area networks.
 The IEEE 802.11b was the first accepted standard, supporting up to 11 Mbps in the 2.4 GHz unlicensed
spectrum band.
 Then, the IEEE 802.11g standard was designed as a higher-bandwidth successor to the IEEE 802.11b.
 An IEEE 802.11g access point will support 802.11b and 802.11g clients.
 Similarly, a laptop with an IEEE 802.11g card will be able to access existing 802.11b access points as well as
new 802.11g access points.
 That is because wireless LANs based on 802.11g will use the same 2.4-GHz band that 802.11b uses.
 The maximum transfer rate for the IEEE 802.11g wireless link is 54 Mbps, but it will automatically back
down from 54 Mbps when the radio signal is weak or when interference is detected.
 WMANs
Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (WMANs)
 Based on IEEE 802.16 standard which is often called WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for

Microwave Access).
 WiMAX is a communications technology that supports point to multipoint architecture aimed at

providing high-speed wireless data over metropolitan area networks.

 WiMAX operates on two frequency bands, a mixture of licensed and unlicensed band, from 2

GHz to 11 GHz and from 10 GHz to 66 GHz.

 Transfer around 70 Mbps over a distance of 50 km to thousands of users from a single base

station.
 As it can operate in two frequency bands WiMAX can work by line-of-sight and non-line-of-

sight.
 WWANs
Wireless Wide Area Networks
 Extend beyond 50 kilometers and typically use licensed frequencies.

 These types of networks can be maintained over large areas, cities, countries, via multiple

satellite systems or antenna sites looked after by an internet services provider.

 There are mainly two available technologies: Digital cellular telephony and Satellite
 Transmission Factors
 There are several key factors that affect signal strength:
Distance: This one is definitely on the obvious side—the farther away from the WAP you get, the
weaker the signal you get. Most APs have a very limited maximum range that equals less than
100m for most systems. You can extend this range to some degree using amplifiers or repeaters or
even by using different antennas.
 Walls and other barriers:-the more walls and other office barriers a wireless signal has to pass
through, the more attenuated (reduced) the signal becomes. Also, the thicker the wall, the more it
interrupts the signal. So in an indoor office area with lots of walls, the range of your wireless
network could be as low as 25 feet!
 Protocols used :-This one isn’t so apparent, but it certainly is a factor that affects, and can even
determine, the range of a wireless LAN. The various wireless 802.11 protocols have different
maximum ranges. For example, if you have a client running the 802.11g protocol but it connects
to an AP running only the 802.11b protocol, you’ll only get a throughput of 11Mbps to the client.
Wi-Fi security encryption algorithms’
 Power Management Features
 Wireless clients operate in one of two power management modes specified by the IEEE
802.11 standard.
 Active mode:- which is commonly called continuous aware mode (CAM)
 Power save:- which is commonly called power save polling (PSP) mode. Conserving power using a power-saving mode is
especially important to mobile users whose laptops or PDAs run on batteries.
 Extending the life of these batteries allows the user to stay up and running longer without a recharge.
 Wireless LAN cards can draw a significant amount of power from the battery while in CAM, which is why power saving
features are included in the 802.11 standard.

Continuous Aware Mode

 Continuous aware mode is the setting during which the wireless client uses full power, does not “sleep,” and is constantly

in regular communication with the access point.

 Any computers that stay plugged into an AC power outlet continuously such as a desktop or server should be set for CAM.

 Under these circumstances, there is no reason to have the PC card conserve power.
 Power Save Polling
 Using power save polling (PSP) mode allows a wireless client to “sleep.”
 By sleep, we mean that the client actually powers down for a very short amount of time,
perhaps a small fraction of a second.
 This sleep is enough time to save a significant amount of power on the wireless client.
 In turn, the power saved by the wireless client enables a laptop computer user, for example, to
work for a longer period of time on batteries, making that user more productive.
 When using PSP, the wireless client behaves differently within basic service sets and
independent basic service sets.
 The one similarity in behavior from a BSS to an IBSS is the sending and receiving of beacons.
 Challenges
 Co-Channel Interference

 Adjacent-Channel Interference

 Multipath

 RF Noise and Noise Floor

 Data corruption

 Signal nullification
 Weather
 Challenges
 Wireless channel is an unpredictable
 Experience‘s random fluctuations in time due to so many reasons (surrounding
objects)
 Higher loss rates due to interference
 Restrictive regulations of frequencies
 Radio spectrum is a scared resource controlled by regulatory bodies– must be
allocated to many different applications and systems
 Low transmission rates
 can not compete with wired systems in terms of data rates and reliability
 Security
 Airwaves are susceptible to snooping from anyone with an RF antenna
 Challenges…
 Mobility management
 Locating users
 Routing information to users
 Medium access
 Shared access to the communication channel
 Mechanisms that allow users to access a common channel is required
 Maintaining quality of service over unreliable link
 Disconnection
 Low bandwidth
 Low power and resource
Applications
Application…
Application….
Application…
 N !
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