Asphalt Binder – Most expansive, occurs naturally, produced from petroleum crude oil by refining.

 Asphalt binder by weight is 4-8% of asphalt mixture & by volumetric 9-18 %.

 Despite its low volume or mass fraction, binder makes up approx. 40-50 % of cost
 Cost (price of asphalt binder, which indirectly related to price of crude oil).
Why we are concern with individual/separate study of binder ? –
 Mix performance dictated by properties of binder, poor quality binder will not result in durable mix.
 2nd thing improvement in durability and life cycle cost of asphalt mixture

Production of asphalt Binder –

 Refining the crude oil, found naturally in rocks, minerals in Trinidad Lake.
 Crude oil is distilled to produce the gasoline, kerosene, diesel, and lubricating oil.
 The residue left after distillation of high value products is referred as binder.

Chemical Properties –
 Refinery production, during construction and after reclaiming the binder at the end of service life.
 Mechanism that allow use of chemical additives to facilitate the mixing and compaction at reduced
temperature i.e. WMA
 Mechanism that allow certain liquid additives or chemically active fillers HL to act as anti-stripping agents.
 Production and use of emulsions for application in surface treatments such as chip seals.
 Finally at the 3rd stage end life stage asphalt pavement are milled pulverized to produce RAP. Addition of
rejuvenator help to counterbalance the properties of RAP.
Elemental Composition-
 Binder is 90-98 % by weight of hydrocarbons (saturated branched or unbranched alkanes and cyclic alkanes
as well as unsaturated aromatics. )
 SHC do not have carbon atom with double or triple bond. Saturated and cyclic alkanes are referred as
paraffins and napthenes.
 Instead of C, H HC also hold O, N, Sulfur.
 O & S impart polarity to molecules & responsible for generating strong intermolecular interaction, which in
turn contribute for stiffness and strength of binder.
 carboxylic acid promote the adhesion although with different level of resistance to de-bonding in presence of
water
 To quantify the concentration of different functional groups in asphalt binder, FTIR required
Molecular size distribution –
 MSD of asphalt binder typically obtained using method referred to as size exclusion chromatography, SEC or gel
permeation chromatography (GPC).

Classification based on Ionic Character

 Ion exclusion chromatography IEC is used to separate the acid, base, and neutral fraction in any given asphalt binder.

Classification based on Polarity

 Nonpolar or polar, “like dissolve like”, if non-polar solvent is used with asphalt binder, it is likely to dissolve the non-polar
molecules as well as molecules that are least partially nonpolar leaving behind highly polar molecules as precipitate
 Precipitate that obtained after dissolving asphalt binder in non polar solvent referred to as asphaltene (dark friable solid
particles), whereas fraction remained dissolve in binder was referred to as maltene (thick fluids).

Aging in asphalt binder

 Oxidative aging of binder used to describe the hardening of asphalt binders due to steric hardening (reversible), oxidative
aging, loss of volatiles from binder, or any combination of these factors

Steric Hardening –
 Reversible aging occur at intermediate to low temperature. At intermediate temperature (5-25)

 SH driven by the polar nature of molecules. Polar molecules tend to have opposite charges at different ends (pyridine – one
end +ve charge and other being –ve charged).
Steric Hardening –
 Molecules remains constant motion due to energy, as a result over time polar molecules within material tend to
rearrange themselves such that opposite charges between two adjacent polar molecules are aligned next to each other.
 This leads to secondary bond formation or association between the polar molecules & increase in the capacity of
material to resist the deformation, i.e. increase in the stiffness.
 As a corollary breakdown of these 2ndary bonds cause the material to loose its stiffness or become soft. Secondary
bonds are weak, require little energy to be disrupted. This energy can be provided in the form of thermal energy by
heating the binder or in form of external work by applying stress.
• SH is reversible aging, since formation of secondary bonds between molecules increase in the stiffness can be revered
by heat or work.

Volatilization and Oxidative Aging –

• During mix production and placement aging occur & during its service life
• Unlike steric hardening the oxidation results in change in molecular structure that can’t be easily reversed.
• Addition of oxygen atom to molecule also result in increase in polarity.
• As a result, over time aromatic, and resin molecules are consumed to form more asphaltene like polar molecules.
• This in turn leads to formation of larger & more associated groups of molecules that increase stiffness, decrease the
ductility of binder.
Simulating Aging in Asphalt Binders –
Asphalt Binders evaluated for their mechanical properties at different levels of aging. Unaged, short-term aged and long
term aged.
Binder received from refinery by contractor responsible for producing the HMA (Unaged).
Viscosity of unaged binder is of interest, because it dictates the workability of AM during production at hot mix plant HMP.

Short term aged binder refers to binder immediately after placement in the field.
In this sense STA, encompasses aging that occurs during few hours starting from mix production at HMP, transport to
construction site, until placement and compaction. Although it occur for few hours but loss of volatile/ extent of oxidation
is very high on account of high mix temperature, excessive exposed surface area of binder coated aggregates in loose mix.
Finally long term aging refers to end of expected service life of pavement. Several years is the duration between short term
and long term aging.
Several methods are developed to simulate the LTA & STA i.e. PAV & RTFO respectively.

RTFO is device that typically inject stream of hot air at 163 C into open mouthed bottle filled with binder placed on rack rotates
constantly. Mass % of volatiles that escape from the binder is note down. Last paragraph of RTFO What they want to say ?? RTFO
Limitation
Then comes PAV, RTFO sample further aged with PAV, to simulate LTA. 100 C, 2.1 MPa, pressure fro 20 h in air presence
contains oxygen. This high temperature and pressure simulate the LTA after several years the binder.
Material characterization, structural design and failure.
 The properties of asphalt binder and mixture highly dependent on time histories or rate of loading (traffic speed or
rate of cooling), temperature of environment and age of material.
 In terms of structural design, Asphalt pavement has always geometry of slab, variable is design thickness & in some
cases use of interface layer with special properties between these layers (geosynthetics)
 Third in terms of failure criteria, asphalt failure occur due to lack of serviceability occurs after failure due to lack of
strength.
In summary, most challenging aspect of designing pavement structure is not complexity of structure rather the
complexity of stress-strain behavior i.e. dependent on time & rate of loading

Time dependency –
 Viscoelastic and time dependent nature of binder.
 Stress-strain behavior of isotropic linear elastic solid in 1D is E = stress/strain & Newtonian fluid says shear stress is directly
proportional to strain rate. So any model describing stress-strain relation of binder will surely include the rate of loading.
 Creep and Relaxation test are the two most common tests used in time domain.
• They give creep compliance and relaxation modulus of material.
Rate Dependency
 Test used is frequency sweep test for evaluation of complex or dynamic modulus of material in frequency domain.
Note* - Tests discussed here are typically considered to represent linear viscoelastic response of material without any
damage.
Means test conducted by applying stress or strain of magnitude that is not large enough to induce significant permanent
damage to material.
Creep test
 Involve applying instantaneous constant load or strictly speaking stress to test specimen & measuring its
deformation over time.
 Material property measured using this test is called as creep compliance D(t) = Strain (t)/ constant stress.
Where sigma not represent = constant stress applied during creep test, measured strain over time, D(t) = creep
compliance
Creep Recovery test –
 Constant load is instantaneously removed after specific duration of loading time and strain recovery of material
is recorded.
 The observed strain decomposed into components such as elastic or instantaneous strain E e, time dependent or
viscoelastic strain Eve and permanent or irrecoverable viscoelastic strain E vp.
Relaxation Test –
Apply constant deformation or strain, to test specimen & measuring the
reaction stress over time. Material property measured is Relaxation
modulus E (t), = stress(t) / strain not E0(constant)
Fig. 2.17 represent relaxation test. ??
Frequency sweep test involves apply several cycles with constant stress
amplitude or stain in sinusoidal waveform.

Frequency sweep test - applying several cycles with either constant

stress amplitude or strain in sinusoidal waveform.
Constant stress amplitude is applied & resulting strain measured,
recorded over time & vice versa.
When subject to stress following sinusoidal waveform, strain response
reaches steady state after few load cycles.
A constant time lag is observed between the stress and strain waves. The
time lag or phase shift expressed in form of phase angle, delta 360 * f*t,
where f in hertz or angular frequency in radian per second.

Also once material response reached steady state, magnitude of

complex modulus E* is defined as constant stress/constant strain.
Complex modulus = dynamic modulus, G* is used in lieu of E*, when
test is conducted in shear mode. Test conducted at multiple frequencies
are referred as FST.
Temperature dependency –
To handle the temperature sensitivity of asphalt binder, is
to define the basic material property such as relaxation,
creep, complex modulus as function of time &
temperature. Increase in temperature leads to soften the
binder & reduce the G* value,
Material that demonstrate this characteristic, wherein data
from different temperature can be horizontally shifted onto
reference temperature to generate single smooth curve
continuous, referred as thermos-rheologically simple
materials.
 DSR

It can obtain both time-frequency dependent properties at different temperatures i.e. creep compliance, relaxation modulus and
complex modulus. Two geometric configuration typically used to test asphalt binder with DSR. Cylindrical specimen 1-2 mm
thick, between two parallel plates with top plate being subjected to torque and bottom plate is fixed. The choice of diameter of
plate and specimen dictated by the torsion capacity of instrument as well as test temperature and aging condition of binder.

Long term aged or oxidized binder at intermediate temperature are stiffer than unaged or short term aged binder tested at high
temperature. Moreover, 8 mm dia plate is suitable for Long term aged binder.
4 mm plate dia. Can be used for binder at low temperature. Since let us consider if we want to evaluate the binder on long term
aged at low temperature whose stiffness is very high. Moreover, since DSR has limited torque capacity. So if we want to use 8-
25mm diameter, and 1-2 mm thick sample that is long term aged at low temperature using DSR, then DSR will not be able to
induce the adequate deformation to specimen required to make repeatable measurement. For such cases, researcher tried to use
4 mm geometry. Or BBR is better choice
Desired binder properties to produce Durable Asphalt Mixtures and PG system –
SUPER-PAVE performance system says – binder rheological properties with aging must
meet certain specification at highest, lowest and intermediate temperature to prevent
premature failure due to rutting fatigue low temperature cracking. Binder under PG grading
rater as PGXX-YY is capable of being used in asphalt pavement with maximum pavement
temperature (XX) and minimum pavement temperature of –YY.
XX – higher grade temperature XX – determined as maximum temperature at which binder
fails a high temperature criterion. In fact there are two criteria one each for unaged and
laboratory short term aged binder and lower of two is used after rounding to nearest lower
six degree increment.
The current criteria for high temperature is minimum G*/sin delta, to mitigate the rutting at
maximum pavement temperature measured on unaged and short term aged binder at 10
rad/sec.
Low temperature –YY is determined as the minimum temperature at which binder
fails a low temperature criterion. In fact there are two criteria one based on
stiffness and one based on relaxation rate and temperature corresponding to higher
of two is used to rounding to next highest six degree increment.
Binder with lower stiffness and higher rate of relaxation will tend to develop the
lower tensile stresses as the pavement cools. The creep compliance of long term
aged binder at low temperature is related to low temperature cracking resistance of
asphalt mixture.
Consequently aged binder must meet maximum stiffness and minimum rate of
relaxation criteria at lowest expected service temperature.
Although the grade is set on high and low temperature, binder must also meet
intermediate temperature requirement. Which is defined as 4 + average sum of
high and low temperature Celsius.
PG grade typically done by first estimating historical air temperature data.
Properties of asphalt binder –
Ability to coat the aggregate particles with its viscosity
(resistance of wetting) and surface tension (driving force).
Viscosity is routinely used as measure of workability during
asphalt mixture production and placement.
The mixture production must be carried out when binder
viscosity 0.15-0.19 Pa-sec measure using rotational viscometer.
The idea at this temperature binder is fluid enough to adequate
coat the surface of aggregate particles.
While the mixture placement and compaction carried out at
viscosity of 0.25-0.31 Pa-sec measured using RV, the idea is
that in this range mixture is workable to placed, spread and
compacted to achieve the target densities, while at same time it
can avoid segregation