MECHANICS OF MATERIALS-MENG 313

LECTURER: ING. CONTEH, ABU LYLE.

Phone:+232-78-906171;
E-mail:lyleconteh28443@gmail.com
 ADMINISTRATION OF THE COURSE (Cont.)
Academic dishonesty will not be tolerated. You are studying to enter a
respected profession and highest ethical standard is expected of you. Your work
should be your own.
For the homework assignments, you are encouraged to consult other students or
the instructor if you run into problems. Consulting is allowed but not copying.
Also, your homework, tests, exams are viewed as exercises in technical
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important. As practicing engineers, your work will be read by other engineers. It
should be easy to do so.
 ADMINISTRATION OF THE COURSE
Attendance will be ta classes. Homework assignments are to be turned in
at the beginning of class on due dates.
Note the following for Tests and Homework assignments:
i. Put name, date, course number and page number on every sheet and
staple all pages together.
ii. Neat diagrams should be drawn as needed.
iii. Show how you solve the problem by using text and descriptions throughout
the steps in the solution.
iv. Use appropriate units.
v. Highlight your final answer with a box or underline
 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS-MENG 313

COURSE OUTLINE-FIRST SEMESTER 2022

THEORY OF BENDING
Derivation and applications of the simple bending equation
Bending of composite beams
Combined bending and direct stress-eccentric loading
THEORY OF TORSION
Derivation and applications of the simple torsion equation
Composite shafts
COMBINED/COMPLEX STRESSES
Direct stress condition
Bi-axial stress condition
Pure shear stress condition
Bi-axial and shear stresses condition
Mohr’s circle analysis
 STRESSES IN THIN CYLINDERS
Stresses in cylindrical shells and spheres (Hoop/circumferential and longitudinal/axial)
Dimensional strains (circumferential, axial and volumetric)
The effect of winding a wire round cylindrical shells under internal pressure
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
The double integral method
Macaulay’s method
Mohr’s “area-moment” method
PRESENTATION- MEASUREMENT OF THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
 
 FOURAH BAY COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY OF SIERRA LEONE

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS-MENG 313

LECTURE 1-THEORY OF BENDING
 THEORY OF BENDING.

 It is convenient to imagine a beam to be composed of an infinite number of thin longitudinal fibers.

Each longitudinal fiber is assumed to act independently of every other fiber Fig 1 a and b.

 The beam of Fig 2-2a, for example, will deflect downward and the fibers in the lower part of the beam
undergo extension, while those in the upper part are shortened.

 These changes in the lengths of the fibers set up stresses in the fibers. Those that are extended have
tensile stresses acting on the fibers in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the beam, while those
that are shortened are subject to compressive stresses.
THEORY OF BENDING.

Fig 1 (a-b)

b
THEORY OF BENDING.

Fig 2 (a-b)
 THEORY OF BENDING.

 There always exists one surface in the beam containing fibers that do not undergo any extension or
compression, and thus are not subject to any tensile or compressive stress. This surface is called
the neutral surface of the beam.

 The intersection of the neutral surface with any cross section of the beam perpendicular to its
longitudinal axis is called the neutral axis. All fibers on one side of the neutral axis are in a state of
tension, while those on the opposite side are in compression
 THEORY OF BENDING.
Assumptions of the theory of simple bending
In deriving the equations for the simple bending theory, the following simplifying assumptions are
made:

1. The beam is initially straight and unstressed.

2. The material of the beam is perfectly homogeneous and isotropic, i.e. of the same density and
elastic properties throughout.

3. The elastic limit is nowhere exceeded.

4. Young's modulus for the material is the same in tension and compression.

5. Plane cross-sections remain plane before and after bending.

6. Every cross-section of the beam is symmetrical about the plane of bending,

7. There is no resultant force perpendicular to any cross-section axis perpendicular to the N.A
 THEORY OF BENDING.
Derivation of the simple bending equation
Consider a beam with the following features in addition to he the simplifying assumptions;

 initially unstressed and straight.

 subjected to a constant bending moment along its length, i.e. pure bending, as would be obtained
by applying equal couples at each end.

It bends to a radius R as shown in Fig. 1b.

As a result of this bending the top fibers of the beam are in tension and the bottom fibers will in
compression.

 At the N.A the stress is zero.

 The radius of curvature R is measured from the N.A. For symmetrical sections the N.A. is the axis
of symmetry, but whatever the section the N.A. will always pass through the centre of area or
centroid.
THEORY OF BENDING.

Fig 2 (a-b)
 THEORY OF BENDING.

 Consider the two cross-sections of a beam, HE and GF, originally parallel as shown in Fig 1-1a.
When the beam is bent (Fig. 1-1b) it is assumed that these sections remain plane; i.e. H’E’ and
G’F', the final positions of the sections, are still straight lines. They will then subtend an angle .

 Consider now some fiber AB in the material, distance y from the N.A. When the beam is bent this
will stretch to A’B’.

But , and, since the N.A. is unstressed, CD = C ‘D’.

………………… 1‑1
 THEORY OF BENDING.

But

………………………………………. 1‑2
Equating equations (1-1) & (1-2) yields;

Rearranging

……………………………………… 1‑3
Consider now a cross-section of the beam (Fig. 2)
 THEORY OF BENDING.

The stress on a fiber at distance y from the N.A. is

……………………………………………… 1‑4
 
 THEORY OF BENDING.
If the strip is of area , the force on the strip is

This has a moment about the N.A. of

The total moment for the whole cross-section is therefore

Since E and R are assumed constant. The term is called the second moment of area of the cross-section
and given the symbol I
 THEORY OF BENDING.

………………………………………………… 1‑6

 It will be seen that if the beam is of uniform section, the material of the beam is homogeneous and
the applied moment is constant;
 If the values of I, E and M remain constant then the radius of curvature of the bent beam will also be
constant.
 For pure bending of uniform sections, the beams will deflect into circular arcs and for this reason the
term circular bending is often used.
 From the foregoing it can be seen that the radius of curvature is directly related to the value of the
quantity El. Since the radius of curvature is a direct indication of the degree of flexibility of the beam
(the larger the value of R, the smaller the deflection and the greater the rigidity)
 The quantity El is termed the Flexural rigidity or flexural stiffness of the beam. The relative stiffness’s
of beam sections can then easily be compared by their El values.
 
 THEORY OF BENDING.

Section modulus (Z)

The maximum stress obtained in any cross-section is given by

…………………………………………. 1‑7
For any given allowable stress, the maximum moment which can be accepted by a particular shape of
cross-section is therefore;

For ready comparison of the strength of various beam cross-sections this is sometimes written in the
form

………………………………………….. 1‑8
Where is termed the section modulus.
 THEORY OF BENDING.

Let us note the following deductions from the section modulus;

 The higher the value of the section modulus for a particular cross-section, the higher the B.M which it
can withstand for a given maximum stress.
 In applications such as cast-iron or reinforced concrete where the properties of the material are vastly
different in tension and compression two values of maximum allowable stress apply. This is particularly
important in the case of unsymmetrical sections such as T-sections (Fig 1-3) where the values of will
also be different on each side of the N.A and here two values of section modulus are often quoted, each
being then used with the appropriate value of allowable stress.
THEORY OF BENDING.

Figure 1‑3
 THEORY OF BENDING.

Figure 1‑4; Different sections of beams

 THEORY OF BENDING.

Second moment of area

Consider the rectangular beam cross-section shown in Fig 1-4. and an element of area thickness
breadth B and distance y from the N.A. which by symmetry passes through the centre of the section. The
second moment of area I has been defined earlier as;

Thus, for the rectangular section the second moment of

area about the N.A., i.e. an axis through the centre, is given
by

𝒃 𝒅3
𝑰 𝑵𝑨=
𝟏𝟐

Figure 1‑5; A rectangular beam section

 THEORY OF BENDING.
Similarly, the second moment of area of the rectangular section about an axis through the lower edge of the section is
given by

These standard forms prove very convenient in the determination of values for built-up sections which
can be conveniently divided into rectangles. As an alternative procedure it is possible to determine the
second moment of area of each rectangle about an axis through its own centroid to “shift” this value to
the equivalent value about the N.A. by means of the parallel axis theorem.

Where A is the area of the rectangle and h the distance of its centroid G from the N.A. whilst this is
perhaps not so quick or convenient for sections built-up from rectangles, it is often the only procedure
available for sections of other shapes, e.g. rectangles containing circular holes.
 THEORY OF BENDING.

Figure 1‑6; Different sections of beams (standard and composite)

 THEORY OF BENDING.
EXAMPLE 1

Fig Q1-5 shows the section of a beam. Determine the ratio of its moment of resistance to bending in the y-y plane to
that in the x-x plane if the maximum bending stress remains the same.
Solution
Data
 See figure for geometrical data
 Maximum bending stress is the same for bending about both
axes (XX and YY)
 Required

where

Figure Q1‑5
 THEORY OF BENDING.

Consider the section as a full rectangle without the semi-circular holes on both sides.
y
Moment of Inertia of rectangle about the xx axis is given by;

x 150
x mm

y
100 mm
Moment of Inertia of the two semicircles about the xx axis is given by;

r r

r= 45mm
 THEORY OF BENDING.
Moment of Inertia of the actual section about the XX axis is given by;

=
Moment of resistance about the xx axis:
, where

Moment of inertia about the YY- axis

Moment of Inertia of rectangle about the YY axis is given by;

To determine the moment of inertia of the two semi-circles about axis YY

consider that about axis AB and the Y’Y’ (centroid of semi-circle).

a=distance of centroid of semi-circle from AB

 THEORY OF BENDING.
Area of each semi-circle

Using the parallel axes theorem for axes AB and Y’Y’ we have ;

Now, using the parallel axes theorem for axes YY and Y’Y’, for one semicircle we have ;

Now for the two semicircles we have;

 THEORY OF BENDING.

Now we have;

, where
 THEORY OF BENDING.
EXAMPLE 2

Figure Q1-6 represents the cross section of an extruded alloy member, which acts as a simply supported
beam with the 60-mm wide flange at the bottom. Determine the moment of resistance of the section, if
the maximum permissible stresses in tension and compression are respectively 60MN/m2 and 45MN/m2

Solution
Data
 See figure for geometrical data
 Maximum bending stress in tension and
compression are respectively 60MN/m2 and
45MN/m2

Required
 Moment of resistance of section (about XX)

Figure Q1‑6
 THEORY OF BENDING.

Let us first determine the position of Neutral Axis (NA) which should align with the line through the
centroid from one flange (say bottom)

𝑨𝟏
𝑨𝟐

𝑨𝟑
𝑨𝟒
 THEORY OF BENDING.
Now taking moments of all areas about the base,

Using the parallel axes theorem, we have

 THEORY OF BENDING.

For a maximum tensile stress of = 60MN/m2

For a maximum compressive stress of = 45MN/m2

Therefore, the maximum allowable moment of resistance is 1.366KNm

 THEORY OF BENDING.

Bending of composite beams

 A beam having two or more than two materials rigidly fixed together is called a composite beam.

 A beam of two materials is most common, such as wooden beam reinforced by metal strips and
concrete beams reinforced with steel rods.

 When such a beam is formed by rigidly bolting together two timber joists and a reinforcing steel
plate, then it is termed a Pitched beam.

 Since the bending theory only holds good when a constant value of Young’s modulus applies across a
section it cannot be used directly to solve composite-beam problems where there are two or more
different materials, and therefore different values of E, are present.
THEORY OF BENDING.

Fig 1-7 a and b

 THEORY OF BENDING.

Consider a flitched beam shown in Fig 1-8 below

Figure 1‑8
 In the Figure 1-8, a steel plate is held centrally in an appropriate recess between two blocks of
wood.

 To analyse the beam, it is convenient to replace the steel by an equivalent area of wood, retaining the
same bending strength, i.e. the moment at any section must be the same in the equivalent section as
in the original
 THEORY OF BENDING.
For this transformation, the force at any given in the equivalent beam must be equal to that at the strip
it replaces.

Figure 1‑9

…………………………………… 1‑10
Since
 THEORY OF BENDING.

Since

For true similarity the strains must be equal

……………………………………… 1‑11
Thus, to replace the steel strip by an equivalent wooden strip the thickness must be multiplied by the
modular ratio E/E’.

The equivalent section is then one of the same materials throughout and the simple bending theory
applies. The stress in the wooden part of the original beam is found directly and that in the steel
found from the value at the same point in the equivalent material as follows:
 THEORY OF BENDING.

…………………………………………..1‑12

Stress in steel = modular ratio x stress in equivalent wood

The above procedure, of course, is not limited to the two materials treated above but applies equally
well for any material combination.
 THEORY OF BENDING.

Combined bending and direct stress- eccentric loading

 There are numerous examples in engineering practice where tensile or compressive loads on sections
are not applied through the centroid of the section and which thus will introduce not only tension or
compression as the case may be but also considerable bending effects.

 In concrete applications, for example, where the material is considerably weaker in tension than in
compression, any bending and hence tensile stresses which are introduced can often cause severe
problems.

Consider, therefore, the beam shown in Fig. 1-9 where the load has been applied at an eccentricity e from
one axis of symmetry. The stress at any point is determined by calculating the bending stress at the point
on the basis of the simple bending theory and combining this with the direct stress (load/area), taking
due account of sign.
 THEORY OF BENDING.

Where

…………………………………………….. 1‑13

The positive sign between the two terms of the expression is used when both parts have the same
effect and the negative sign when one produces tension and the other compression. It should now be
clear that any eccentric load can be treated as precisely equivalent to a direct load acting through the
centroid plus an applied moment about an axis through the centroid equal to load x eccentricity.
 THEORY OF BENDING.

Limitations of the simple bending theory

 It has been observed earlier that the theory introduced in preceding sections is often termed the
"simple theory of bending" and that it relies on a number of assumptions which have been listed.
 It should thus be evident that in practical engineering situations the theory will have certain
limitations depending on the degree to which these assumptions can be considered to hold true. The
following paragraphs give an indication of when some of the more important assumptions can be
taken to be valid and when alternative theories or procedures should be applied.

 Assumption: Stress is proportional to the distance from the axis of zero stress (neutral axis)
Correct homogeneous beams within the elastic range.
Incorrect (a) for loading conditions outside the elastic range when
(b) For composite beams with different materials or properties when
'Equivalent sections’ must be used
 THEORY OF BENDING.

 Assumption: Strain is proportional to the distance from the axis of zero strain
Correct : for initially straight beams or, for engineering purposes, beams with R/d > 10
Incorrect: for initially curved beams for which special theories have been developed or
to which correction factors may be applied.

 Assumption: Neutral axis passes through the centroid of' the section
Correct: for pure bending with no axial load.
Incorrect: for combined bending and axial load systems such as eccentric loading.
In, such cases the loading effects must be separated, stresses arising from
each calculated and them results superimposed.

 Assumption: Plane cross-sections remain plane.

Correct (a) for cross-sections at a reasonable distance from points of local loading or
Stress concentration (usually taken to be at least one-depth of beam),
(b) When change of cross-section with length is gradual,
(c) In the absence of end-condition spurious effects
 THEORY OF BENDING.

Incorrect: (a) for points of local loading;

(b) At positions of stress concentration such as holes,
(c) In regions of rapid change of cross-section. In such cases appropriate stress
Concentration factors must be applied or experimental stress/strain analysis
techniques adopted.

 Assumption: The axis of the applied bending moment is coincident with the neutral axis.
Correct: when the axis of bending is a principal axis.
Incorrect : for so-called unsymmetrical bending cases when the axis of the applied
bending moment is not a principal axis. In such cases the moment should be
resolved into components about the principal axes.

 Assumption Lateral contraction or expansion is not prevented.

Correct: when the beam can be considered narrow (i.e. width the same order as the
depth).
Incorrect: for wide beams or plates in which the width may be many times the depth.
Special procedures apply for such cases.