Sampling methods

Deciding on a sampling strategy

• Is your study qualitative or quantitative?
• What is your question of interest?
• Is your population easily accessible?
• Is your topic sensitive?

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 Non-Probability Sampling
• In this type of sampling, some people have a higher chance of being
selected for the study than others
• Focused on populations that are harder to reach or where a sampling
frame does not exist
• In this type of sampling it is hard to generalize findings to the larger
population

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 Non-Probability Sampling: Convenience
Sampling
• In this type of sampling researcher selects any participant who is readily
available to participate in the study (e.g., people in your network, people
in your classroom)
• Their participation happens based on availability or accident
• This type of sampling can be cost and time effective in the case of pilot
studies (i.e., studies that represent initial inquiries)

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 Probability Sampling
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified random sampling
• Cluster random sampling
• Systematic random sampling
• Multistage sampling

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 Probability Sampling:
Simple Random Sampling
• Sampling procedure that relies on complete randomization without any
boundaries
• Appropriate when we know the population we intend to investigate (e.g.,
a list of the population is available in a phone book)
• Conducted using random number generator, picking numbers or
participants from a fish bowl, or other simple techniques
• Advantages are that every member has an equal chance of participating
and ensures representation of the population

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Figure 6.6
Simple Random Sampling

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 Systematic Random Sampling
• Technique based on selecting the nth number on the sampling frame
• N = The sampling interval or the ratio between the sampling frame and
the sample size

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Systematic Sampling
 Probability Sampling:
Stratified Random Sampling
• Sampling procedure that is appropriate when we are focused on
understanding, comparing, and analyzing different groups of a
population
• Requires equal numbers of participants from each group (e.g., men and
women, different ethnicities, and marital status)
• The list of different groups are called strata

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 Probability Sampling: Proportionate and
Disproportionate Stratified Sampling
• Proportionate Stratified Sampling: Procedure that are equivalent to the
proportions of the population but creates specific strata that are of
interest to the study
• Disproportionate Stratified Sampling: Procedure that are not equivalent
to the proportions of the population but creates specific strata that are
of interest to the study

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Figure 6.7
Proportionate Stratified Sampling

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Figure 6.8
Disproportionate Stratified Sampling

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 Cluster Random Sampling
• A technique of sampling that allows the researcher to create separate
random clusters first and then randomly select participants from each
cluster
• Cluster = A group of the population within which the participants are
going to be randomly selected
• Clusters need to be as similar to the entire population as possible

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 Data Collection for
Quantitative Research

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 Collecting Data Through Questionnaires
• Conducting surveys is a common procedure for data collection
particularly in social science
• A survey refers to the method of data collection
• A questionnaire is the instrument containing the questions
• Untested questionnaires = non-standardized survey questionnaires
• Tested questionnaires = standardized survey questionnaires (e.g., math,
writing or reading tests we complete in school)

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 Methods of Data Collection
• Personally collecting information
• Computer-assisted telephone interviews
• Virtual collection of data

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 Personally Collecting Information
• Can be laborious due to large sample sizes
• Widely employed by researchers
• Researchers will approach people individually and ask them questions
verbally or ask them to complete a questionnaire
• Advantages include the ability to note body language, record impressions
and keep records, maximize participation in study, and maximize
completion of the questionnaire
• Disadvantages include cost and time limitations

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 Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI)
• CATI involves collection of data electronically (e.g., interviews conducted
by a computer)
• Even when using this method, it is critical that interviewers be trained
well. Interviewers need to consider:
• familiarity with content
• be mindful of bias and judgment
• set a comfortable environment and tone
• not lead the participant

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 Virtual Data Collection
• Online surveys are very popular and can access a large number of
participants in a manner of minutes with a higher response rate than
face-to-face data or telephone data collection
• Limitations include the fact that many people do not have access to the
Internet, the fact that people who feel strongly about an issue will be
more likely to participate, and the researcher cannot guarantee
participant confidentiality

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 Virtual Data Collection
• Online survey websites
• www.surveymonkey.com
• www.surveypro.com
• www.zoomerang.com

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 Survey Development Considerations
• Start with a clear introduction that includes the study focus
• Assure participants of confidentiality
• Create consistent and visually appealing questions
• Be mindful of requiring answers to questions and the ethical implications
of doing this

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 Secondary Versus Primary Data
• Secondary data is data or raw information collected by other researchers
versus primary data collected for a specific purpose by a researcher

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 Benefits of Secondary Data
• Availability of information
• Opportunities for replication
• Protection of participants
• Time effectiveness
• Cost effectiveness
• Large data sets

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 Availability of Information
• Allows use of data that may have since become impossible to collect
• For example: Emile Durkheim used secondary data to examine
government statistics on suicide from different countries

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 Protection of Participants
• In some instances utilizing secondary data can be useful with sensitive
populations of interest
• For example, a researcher interested in conducting research with victims
of childhood abuse can gather secondary data such as through police
reports

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 Time Effectiveness
• Collecting primary data requires a great deal of time
• Collecting quantitative and qualitative data can take a few months to a
few years, particularly for larger studies
• Secondary data eliminates the time and effort involved with primary data
collection

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 Cost Effectiveness
• Primary data collection can be costly and often requires a large budget
• Primary data collection costs include funds for tools, participant
incentives, and so on
• These costs are not present when working with secondary data

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 Large Data Sets
• In secondary data the researcher is able to use large amounts of data
(e.g., census data)
• Large data sets also allow the researcher the ability to generalize his or
her findings to the population at large
• Data scraping is a method by which researchers extract large amounts of
information from websites (e.g., social media and media sites) into a
readable spreadsheet (e.g., Excel)

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 Major Sources of Secondary Data
• Government statistics (e.g., Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
and the National Institutes for Health)
• Research University Data (e.g., Panel Study of Income Dynamics, data
collected by a specific researcher)
• Institutional Data (e.g., institutional information on students, staff, and
other employees)
• Online Sources (e.g., Facebook and Twitter)
• Popular data sources (e.g., Driven Data, Kaggle, and Enigma)

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Table 8.1
Resources for Secondary Data
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Disadvantages of
Secondary Data
• Uncertainty of constructs
• The original study focus may be different from your study
focus
• Ambiguity of measurement error
• With secondary data, you may not be aware of all the
details of the study procedures
• Passage of time
• With secondary data, the information may be outdated
(e.g., census data is collected once every 10 years). This is
both a limitation and a strength if one is interested in
studying how a concept has changed over time.

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Secondary Data and
Ethical Considerations
• Though a researcher using secondary data does not interact with the
study participants ethical concerns are still important to consider
• Consider the ethical decisions made in the original study
• Consider how much information you intend to reveal in your study and be
responsible for protecting the identities of your participants

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 Open-Access Student Resources
• Action Plan
• Quizzes
• eFlashcards
• SAGE Journal Articles

and more at edge.sagepub.com/pajo

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