Colliders and Detectors

Topics in Contemporary Physics
Colliders and Detectors
Luis Roberto Flores Castillo

Chinese University of Hong Kong
Hong Kong SAR

February 6, 2015
PART 1 • Brief history
• Basic concepts
• Colliders & detectors
• From Collisions to
papers 5σ
• The Higgs discovery
• BSM
• MVA Techniques
• The future
L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 6, 2015 2
… last time:
• Flavor Symmetries
• Discrete Symmetries
– Parity
– Charge Conjugation
– CP
– The TCP Theorem
Quick reminders:
• Homework 2 in the download area tonight. Due next
Friday.
• Extra credit question: 10 points (out of 100)
• Late hand in: - 40%

Reminder: interactions
QED:
QCD:
SM Particle Content
Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa matrix
Weak:
NO Flavor-Changing-Neutral-Currents
W/Z: W/Z/γ:

Reminder: Relativistic kinematics
Maxwell c for all observers Lorentz
equations transformations
Four-vector
time-position: xμ = (ct, x, y, z)
proper velocity: ημ=dxμ/dτ = γ(c, vx, vy, vz)
energy-momentum: pμ = mημ = (E/c, px, py, pz)
contravariant Scalar product:
is Lorentz-invariant covariant
Energy-momentum Useful:
For v=c, E = hv

Symmetry, conservation laws, groups
• 1917: Emmy Noether’s theorem:

Every symmetry yields a conservation law
Conversely, every conservation law reflects
an underlying symmetry
• A “symmetry” is an operation on a system that leaves it invariant.
i.e., it transforms it into a configuration indistinguishable from the

original one.
The set of all symmetry operations on a given system forms a group:
• Closure: If a and b in the set, so is ab
• Identity: there is an element I s.t. aI = Ia = a for all elements a.
• Inverse: For every element a there is an inverse, a-1, such that aa-1 = a-1a = I
• Associativity: a(bc) = (ab)c
if commutative, the group is called Abelian

Angular Momentum
• Classically, orbital (rmv), spin (Iω) not different in essence.
• In QM,
– “Spin” interpretation no longer valid
– All 3 components cannot be measured simultaneously; and most we can measure:
• the magnitude of L ( L2 = L L ). Allowed values: j(j+1)ħ2
• one component (usually labeled “z”) Allowed values: -j,…,j in integer
steps
2j+1 possibilities
Orbital angular momentum (l) Spin angular momentum (s)
Allowed values integer integer or half integer

– For
Differences:
each particle type any (integer) value fixed
• Ket notation:
• “A particle with spin 1” :

– Castillo
L. R. Flores a particle with s=1 CUHK February 6, 2015 7
Addition of Angular Momenta
Besides total angular momentum, sometimes we need the
specific states:
Clebsch-Gordan
coefficients
(Particle Physics
Booklet, internet,
books, etc.)

Spin ½
• Most important case (p, n, e, all quarks, all leptons)
• Illustrative for other cases
• For s=½, 2 states:
ms=½ (“spin up”, ) or ms= –½ (“spin down”, )
• Better notation: Spinors
– two-component
column vectors:
• “a particle of spin ½ can only exist in one of these states”

Wrong! its general state is
Where α and β are complex numbers, and

Accelerators
Some material from Erik Aldi, University of Oslo/CERN
10
Particle Accelerators
• Large Hadron Collider, world biggest accelerator … so far

• Start-up in September 2008
• First collisions inCUHK
L. R. Flores Castillo
2010 February 6, 2015 11
Particle Accelerators
• The main driving force of accelerator development was

collision of particles for high-energy physics experiments
• Today there are over 30,000 particle accelerators; only

a fraction is used in HEP
• Over half of them used in medicine
• Accelerator physics is a discipline in itself and a growing

field

Medical applications
• Therapy
– Last decades: electron accelerators (converted to X-
ray via a target) successfully used for cancer
therapy
– On the rise: proton accelerators instead (hadron
therapy): energy deposition can be controlled better,
but large technical challenges
• Imaging
• Isotope production for
PET scanners
L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 6, 2015

Heidelberg Ion-Beam Therapy Center (HIT)

Synchrotron Light Sources
• Last decades, huge increase in the use of synchrotron
radiation from particle accelerators
• Very intense light at a wide range of frequencies (visible or
not)
• Wide range of scientific applications

Particle type
• Lepton collisions:
– Elementary particles
– Well-known processes
– Well defined energy
– Precision measurement
• Hadron collisions:
– Composite particles
– Quarks, anti-quarks, gluons:
many processes
– Parton energy spread
– Large discovery range
“If you know what to look for, collide leptons, if not collide hadrons”
Why Colliders?
• New physics can be found at unexplored energies
• Energy for particle creation: center-of-mass energy, ECM
• Assume particles in beams with parameters

m, E, E >> mc2
– Particle beam on fixed target: E CM  mE
– Colliding particle beams: E CM  2 E
•  Colliding beams much more efficient

Cross Sections and Luminosity
Cross section (s) & differential cross section (ds/dW) express the
probability of interactions between particles of interest.
Example:
Colliding
beams beam spot
F1 = N1/t F2 = N2/t area A
Interaction rate: Rint  N1N2 / (A · t) = s · L

s has units of area.
Instantaneous Luminosity L Practical unit:
[cm-2 s-1]
1 barn (b) = 10-24 cm2
Example: scattered
Scattering beam solid angle
from target target element dW
incident Nscat(q)  Ninc· nA · dW

beam
= ds/dW (q) · Ninc·nA· dW
.nA = area density of
scattering centers in
target
Luminosity
• High energy is not enough

• Cross-sections for interesting processes are very small
(~ pb = 10−36 cm² ) !
– s(gg → H) = 23 pb [ at s2pp = (14 TeV)2, mH = 150 GeV/c2 ]
R  L
– We need L >> 1030 cm-2s-1 in order to observe a significant

amount of interesting processes!
• L [cm-2s-1] for “bunched colliding beams” depends on

– number of particles per bunch (n1, n2)
n1point
– bunch transverse size at the interaction n2 (x, y )
– bunch collision rate (f) L f
4 x y
29 colliders built, 7 in operation

Evolution
2014 JINST 9 T07002

V. Shiltsev, “A phenomenological cost model for
high energy particle accelerators”
Simplified comparison: LEP and LHC
LEP LHC
Particle type(s) e+ and e- p, ions (Pb, Au)
Collision energy (Ecm) 209 GeV (max) pp: 14 TeV

(~ 2-3 TeV mass reach,
depending on physics)
Pb: 1150 TeV
Luminosity (L) Peak: 1032 cm-2s-1 Peak: 1034 cm-2s-1

Daily avg last years: 1031 (IP1 / IP5)
cm-2s-1
Integrated: ~ 1000 pb-1
(per experiment)

The challenge …
Accelerate particles to ~ c, keep them within
millimeters of a desired trajectory, while
transporting them over a distance several
times the size of the solar system
HOW?
Basics
Components …
• in which particles will move
• to accelerate the particles
• to steer them
• to measure them

Lorentz equation
• Main tasks of an accelerator
– Increase particle energy
– Change particles’ direction
• steer them on a given trajectory
• focusing
• Lorentz Force:
• FB  v  FB does no work on the particle

– Only FE can increase the particle energy
• FE or FB for deflection? v  c  Magnetic field of 1 T (feasible)

same bending power as en electric field of 3108 V/m (NOT feasible)
– FB is by far the most effective in order to change the particle
direction
Acceleration techniques: DC field
• The simplest acceleration method: DC

voltage
• Energy kick: DE=qV
• Acceleration over many gaps: electrostatic
accelerator

Acceleration techniques: RF field
• Oscillating RF (radio-frequency)
field
L  (1 / 2)vT
• “Widerøe accelerator”, (after Rolf Widerøe)

• Particle must see the field only when the field is in the accelerating
direction
– Requires the synchronism condition to hold: Tparticle =½TRF
• Problem: high power loss due to radiation

Acceleration techniques: RF cavities
• Electromagnetic power is stored in a resonant volume instead of
being radiated
• RF power feed into cavity, originating from RF power generators,

like Klystrons
• RF power oscillating (from magnetic to electric energy), at the

desired frequency
• RF cavities requires bunched beams (as opposed to

coasting beams)
– particles located in bunches separated in space

From pill-box to real cavities
LHC cavity module ILC cavity

Why circular accelerators?
• Technological limit on E-field in RF cavities

(breakdown)
• Gives a limited E per distance
• In circular accelerators we can re-use the
same RF cavity
The synchrotron
• Acceleration via RF cavities
• (Piecewise) circular motion
ensured by a guide field FB
• FB: bending magnets with a
homogenous field
• In the arc section:
v2 1 qB 1 1 B[T ]
FB  m    [m ]  0.3
  p  p[GeV / c]
• RF frequency must stay locked to the revolution frequency

of circulating particles (later slide)
• Almost all current particle accelerators are synchrotrons

Digression: other accelerator types
• Cyclotron:
– constant B field
– constant RF field in the gap increases energy
– radius increases proportionally to energy
– limit: relativistic energy, RF phase out of synch
– In some respects simpler than the synchrotron,
and often used as medical accelerators
• Synchro-cyclotron
– Cyclotron with varying RF phase
• Betatron
– Acceleration induced by time-varying magnetic field
• Well only discuss the synchrotron

Frequency dependence on energy
• In order to see the effect of a too low/high DE, we need

to study the relation between the change in energy and
the change in the revolution frequency (h: "slip factor")
df r / f r

dp / p
• Two effects:
1. Higher energy  higher speed (except ultra-relativistic)
c
fr 
2R
2. Higher energy  larger orbit “Momentum compaction”

Momentum compaction
• Increase in energy will
lead to a larger orbit
v2 1 qB 1 1 B[T ]
FB  m    [m ]  0.3
  p  p[GeV / c]

Phase stability
• h>0: velocity increase dominates, fr
increases
• Synchronous particle stable for 0º<fs<90º

– A particle N1 CUHK
L. R. Flores Castillo arriving early with
February f= fs-d will get a lower
6, 2015 36
Bending field
• Circular accelerators: deflecting forces needed
• Circular accelerators: piecewise circular

orbits with a defined bending radius 
– Straight sections are needed for e.g. particle detectors
– In circular arc sections the magnetic field must provide the
desired bending radius: 1  eB
 p
• For a constant particle energy we need a constant B field

 dipole magnets with homogenous field
• In a synchrotron, the bending radius,1/=eB/p, is kept
constant during acceleration
The reference trajectory
We need to steer and focus the beam, keeping all particles
close to the reference orbit
Reference trajectory

Dipole magnets to steer Focus?
• homogenous field
L. R. Flores Castillo • o • cosq distribution
CUHK February 6, 2015 38
Focusing field: quadrupoles
• Quadrupole magnets give
linear field in x and y:
Bx = -gy
By = -gx
• However, it’s focusing in one plane and defocusing in the

orthogonal plane: Fx = -qvgx (focusing)
Fy = qvgy (defocusing)
Alternating gradient scheme, leading to
betatron oscillations

The Lattice
• An accelerator is composed of bending

magnets, focusing magnets and non-linear
magnets
• This ensemble constitutes the “accelerator
lattice”

Example: lattice components

Transverse beam size
• A very important parameter

– Vacuum chamber
– Interaction point and luminosity
• The transverse beam size is given by the

envelope of the particles:
E ( s )   ( s )
Lattice
Beam quality

The beta function, b
• NB: Even if beta function is periodic, the

particle motion itself is in general not
periodic (after one revolution the initial
condition f0 is altered)
• The beta function should be kept at
Conclusion: transverse dynamics
• The transverse optics of a circular

accelerator needs various optics elements,
– the dipole for bending
– the quadrupole for focusing
– (sextupole for chromaticity correction – not discussed here)

LHC

LHC: wrt. to earlier slides
• proton-proton collisions
 two vacuum chambers, with opposite bending field
• RF cavities
 bunched beams
• Synchrotron with alternating-gradient

focusing
• Superconducting lattice magnets and
superconducting RF cavities
• Regular FODO arc-section with
sextupoles for chromaticity correction
LHC injector system
• LHC is responsible
for accelerating
protons from 450
GeV up to 7000
GeV
• 450 GeV protons

injected into LHC
from the SPS
• PS injects into the

LHC layout
• Circumference = 26658.9 m
• 8 interaction points, 4 of
which contain detectors
where the beams intersect
• 8 straight sections,
containing the IPs, around
530 m long
• 8 arcs with a regular lattice
structure, containing 23 arc
cells
• Each arc cell has a regular
structure, 106.9 m long

LHC cavities
• Superconducting RF cavities (standing wave, 400 MHz)

• Each beam: one cryostats with 4+4 cavities each
• Located at LHC point 4
LHC main parameters
at collision energy
Particle type p, Pb
Proton energy Ep at collision 7000 GeV
Peak luminosity (ATLAS, 10 x 1034 cm-2s-1
CMS)
Circumference C 26 658.9 m
Bending radius r 2804.0 m
RF frequency fRF 400.8 MHz
# particles per bunch np 1.15 x 1011
# bunches nb 2808

Detectors
51
Early examples
accelerator
manipulation detector
By E or B field

Geiger Counter
Later developed further

and called Geiger-Müller
counter
First electrical signal

from a particle

Several technologies available today
E
gas cathode
Ethreshold
b
a
1/r
anode
a r
Proportional counter Multi-wire proportional chamber
c
ath
odep
ads g
rou
ndp
la
ne
s
pac
er
G
10(
s u
ppo
rt)
1
0kV
3.2 mm
5
0m
2 mm
bakelite
g
rap
hite 4
kV (melam ine
p
hen o licla
m in
ate
)
2mm
p
ick
ups
trip
s
Thin Gap Chamber (TGC) Resistive Plate Chamber

(No wires!)
Detector Systems

Magnet System

Magnet System

Magnet System

Pixel Detector

Semiconductor Tracker (SCT)

Transition Radiation Tracker

Muon Spectrometer

Tracking

Momentum Measurement
L
mv 2
 q (v  B )  pT  qB
x 
B s
y
pT (GeV c)  0.3B (T  m)
L 0.3L  B
 sin  2   2   
 2 pT

s: “sagitta”
 2 0.3 L2 B
s   1  cos  2    
8 8 pT

Momentum Measurement
the sagitta s is determined by 3 measurements with error
s(x): s  x 2  2 ( x1  x3 )
1
meas. 3 3
  pT   (s) 2
 ( x) 2
 ( x)  8 pT
   2
pT s s 0.3  BL
for N equidistant measurements, one obtains

(R.L. Gluckstern, NIM 24 (1963) 381)
meas.
  pT   ( x)  pT
 720 /( N  4) (for N  10)
pT 0.3  BL2
ex: pT=1 GeV/c, L=1m, B=1T, s(x)=200mm, N=10
meas.
  pT  (s  3.75 cm)
 0.5%
pT
Calorimeter Systems
• “Destructive” measurement; works by total
absorption, combined w/spatial reconstruction.
• Works both for charged (e, hadrons) & neutral particles (n,g)
• Basic mechanism:
formation of electromagnetic or hadronic showers
• Energy is converted into ionization or excitation of matter
• Detector response  E
• Energy resolution:  (E) a c
 b
E E E
Noise term
Stochastic
term Constant term Electronic noise,
Inhomogenities, bad cell inter- radioactivity, pile up
calibration, non-linearities
Calorimeter Systems

EM Calorimeter
• Accordion geometry absorbers immersed in Liquid Argon
Liquid Argon (90K)

+ lead-steal absorbers (1-2 mm)
+ multilayer copper-polyimide
readout boards
 Ionization chamber.
1 GeV E-deposit  5 x106 e-
• Accordion geometry minimizes dead zones

• Liquid Ar is intrinsically radiation hard
• Readout board allows fine segmentation
(azimuth, pseudo-rapidity and longitudinal),
adequate to physics needs
Test beam results for 300 GeV electrons
Spatial and angular uniformity  0.5%

Putting it all together

Putting it all together

Literature on Particle Detectors
• Text books
– C. Grupen, Particle Detectors, Cambridge University Press, 1996
– G. Knoll, Radiation Detection and Measurement, 3rd Edition, 2000
– W. R. Leo, Techniques for Nuclear and Particle Physics Experiments, 2nd edition,
Springer, 1994
– R.S. Gilmore, Single particle detection and measurement, Taylor&Francis, 1992
– W. Blum, L. Rolandi, Particle Detection with Drift Chambers, Springer, 1994
– K. Kleinknecht, Detektoren für Teilchenstrahlung, 3rd edition, Teubner, 1992
• Review articles
– Experimental techniques in high energy physics, T. Ferbel (editor), World
Scientific, 1991.
– Instrumentation in High Energy Physics, F. Sauli (editor), World Scientific, 1992.
– Many excellent articles can be found in Ann. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci.
• Other sources
– Particle Data Book (Phys. Rev. D, Vol. 54, 1996)
– R. Bock, A. Vasilescu, Particle Data Briefbook
http://www.cern.ch/Physics/ParticleDetector/BriefBook/
– Proceedings of detector conferences (Vienna VCI, Elba, IEEE)

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Topics in Contemporary Physics

Colliders and Detectors

Luis Roberto Flores Castillo

Hong Kong SAR

• Colliders & detectors

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 6, 2015 3

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 6, 2015 4

contravariant Scalar product:

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 6, 2015 5

• 1917: Emmy Noether’s theorem:

• A “symmetry” is an operation on a system that leaves it invariant.

i.e., it transforms it into a configuration indistinguishable from the

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 6, 2015 6

Allowed values integer integer or half integer

• “A particle with spin 1” :

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 6, 2015 8

• “a particle of spin ½ can only exist in one of these states”

Where α and β are complex numbers, and

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 6, 2015 9

Some material from Erik Aldi, University of Oslo/CERN

• Large Hadron Collider, world biggest accelerator … so far

• The main driving force of accelerator development was

• Today there are over 30,000 particle accelerators; only

• Over half of them used in medicine

• Accelerator physics is a discipline in itself and a growing

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 6, 2015 12

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 6, 2015

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 6, 2015

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 6, 2015

• New physics can be found at unexplored energies

• Energy for particle creation: center-of-mass energy, ECM

• Assume particles in beams with parameters

– Particle beam on fixed target: E CM  mE

– Colliding particle beams: E CM  2 E

•  Colliding beams much more efficient

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 6, 2015

Interaction rate: Rint  N1N2 / (A · t) = s · L

incident Nscat(q)  Ninc· nA · dW

• High energy is not enough

– We need L >> 1030 cm-2s-1 in order to observe a significant

• L [cm-2s-1] for “bunched colliding beams” depends on

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 6, 2015 21

2014 JINST 9 T07002

Particle type(s) e+ and e- p, ions (Pb, Au)

Collision energy (Ecm) 209 GeV (max) pp: 14 TeV

Luminosity (L) Peak: 1032 cm-2s-1 Peak: 1034 cm-2s-1

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 6, 2015 23

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 6, 2015 25

• FB  v  FB does no work on the particle

• FE or FB for deflection? v  c  Magnetic field of 1 T (feasible)

• The simplest acceleration method: DC

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 6, 2015 27

• “Widerøe accelerator”, (after Rolf Widerøe)

• Problem: high power loss due to radiation

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 6, 2015 28

• RF power feed into cavity, originating from RF power generators,

• RF power oscillating (from magnetic to electric energy), at the